Factors Influencing Rural Migration Decisions in Scotland: An Analysis of the Evidence

3 'Push' Factors encouraging people to leave rural areas

3.1 The literature identifies many factors as important motivators, encouraging individuals to move out of rural areas. These are discussed below.

3.2 It should be noted that the decision-making processes described for individual out-migrants are extremely complex and subjective, often involving the ' personal negotiation of different, and on occasions conflicting, influences'³⁰. Indeed, many studies suggest that the specific combinations and relative forces of these 'push' factors are often dependent on the specific geographical region and individuals involved ³⁰.

Young People

3.3 The nature of literature analysed in this review suggests that young people are the largest group of out-migrants from rural areas, and undoubtedly the most broadly studied. However, the definitions used for 'young people' vary widely across the literature. For example, definitions of 'young people' were found to refer variously to under 18s, under 25 years olds, primary school aged children, secondary school pupils, school leavers, university/college students and newly formed households. The factors mentioned in this section cannot, therefore, be assumed to reflect the views of all these groups and, even when they do, they may not reflect all in equal measure.

The main 'push' factors reported to influence young people in general are as follows:

3.4 Employment. A lack of job opportunities and a lack of choice in the job options available are highlighted as key 'push' factors by a Scotland-wide literature review published in 2008; a Scotland-wide survey of 11-16 year olds published in 2003; a large mixed methods study of migration from and into the Outer Hebrides published in 2007; a large mixed methods study of population change on Orkney published in 2009; a large mixed methods study of migration in the Shetlands published in 2007; and a large mixed methods study of rural migration undertaken in six rural areas with a high population turnover (Skye, Northeast Fife, Kyle and Carrick, Black Isle, Mearns and Crieff), published in 1999 ^{23, 17, 9, 10, 8, 6,} . In addition, a lack of high quality jobs for young people is identified as a key driver, particularly in terms of pay, training, job security, career progression, compatibility with graduate-level qualifications, and opportunities to develop new skills. This is mentioned by a large-scale survey of 11-16 year olds across Scotland, published in 2003; a large mixed methods study of the Outer Hebrides, published in 2007; a large mixed methods study of population change in Orkney, published in 2009; a large mixed methods study of migration in the Shetlands, published in 2007; a large qualitative study of migration in the Scottish Borders, published in 2000; a large qualitative study of migration choices in three economically deprived regions (North west Sutherland, the Isle of Islay, and East Ayrshire); and a smaller scale survey of out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh published in 2002 ^{17, 9, 10, 8, 16, 5, 30}. Indeed, this latter study goes as far as to suggest that the lack of high quality of jobs available may be more of an issue than a general lack of jobs ³⁰. However, a 2007 study of migration in the Shetlands notes that employers are also finding it difficult to recruit staff for some lower skilled jobs, suggesting that the general issues surrounding high quality jobs and job availability do have regional variations ⁸. Additional issues concerning young people's employment in rural areas (although not mentioned in the specific context of migration) include a tendency for young people to occupy the most low paid and insecure jobs in rural areas ⁴; and their generally low earning power in rural jobs, which (combined with their lack of savings and the often high cost of living reported in rural Scotland) make it difficult for them to have a high quality of life ⁴. Both these issues are raised by a Scotland-wide literature review on rural youth, published in 2000.

3.5 Higher education. Limited options for good quality higher education is identified as a key 'push' factor for young people. In the literature, the higher education options available in rural areas are often described as scarce, difficult to access, out of date, or inappropriate. These issues are raised in a Scotland-wide literature review on youth out-migration from rural areas (published in 2008); a large-scale survey of 11-16 year olds in Scotland (published in 2003); a survey of out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh (published in 2002); a large mixed methods study of the Outer Hebrides (published in 2007) ; and a survey of young people living in the Highlands and Islands (published in 2009) ^{23,17,30, 9, 14}. However, this latter study suggests that higher education opportunities encourage mostly temporary migration, which only becomes permanent due to other factors such as jobs and housing ¹⁴.

3.6 Housing. A lack of affordable housing in rural areas is identified as a 'push' factor for young people. It is highlighted by a Scotland-wide literature review on youth out-migration, published in 2008; a Scotland-wide survey focusing on rural youth's view on migration, published in 2003; a 2009 large-scale survey of young people in the Highlands and Islands; a 2007 qualitative study of migration choices in three economically deprived rural areas in Scotland (North West Sutherland, Islay and East Ayrshire); and a large mixed methods study of migration in the Shetlands published in 2007 23, ^{28,4,23,5,14,17, 8}. Participants in the 2009 study of young people in the Highlands and Islands suggested that young people are disadvantaged in housing markets because they are ' continually competing with others with deeper pockets, be they older residents with established careers and smaller mortgage requirements or retirees looking for a rural retreat'²³. In addition, the small and expensive rental markets in some rural areas, and the lack of peers to share with in order to help split rental costs, are thought to compound housing problems: a conclusion from the 2008 literature review on youth out-migration from rural Scotland ²³. Another issue mentioned in relation to rural housing provision for young people (although not in the specific context of rural migration), is the lack of good quality housing within young people's budgets. This is mentioned by a large-scale survey and interview-based study with 18-24 year olds across Scotland, published in 2000 ³. However, a 2008 literature review used to make demographic projections for the Cairngorms National Park states that ' the lack of affordable housing is unlikely to be the key reason for the out migration of young adults, as research shows that very few young adult leavers move for housing reasons' ¹⁸. This suggests that multiple factors are likely to influence an individual's decision to leave their rural area, with some having a more prominent role than others.

3.7 Desire for independence. Many of the factors associated with rural housing are underpinned by young people's general desire to leave home and live independently from their parents. This has been identified by several studies, including a large-scale survey and interview-based study with 18-24 year olds across Scotland, published in 2000 ³.

3.8 Leisure Facilities. Poor availability and choice in the leisure and recreation facilities aimed at young people, and poor accessibility to those facilities that are available, was identified as an issue by out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh, whose views were published in 2001 ²⁸. This view is echoed by an older, Scotland-wide study which, although published before the cut off date for this review, nonetheless suggests that this issue could be more widespread ¹².

3.9 Shops and services. A lack of local shops, along with the recent closure of others, is mentioned as an issue by a 2001 study exploring the views and experiences of out migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh ³¹. Another issue mentioned (although without specific reference to rural migration) is the general lack of accessible and affordable services in rural areas. This is raised by a detailed qualitative study of residents, service providers and businesses from three economically deprived rural areas in Scotland (North West Sutherland, the island of Islay, and East Ayrshire) ⁵.

3.10 Transport. Insufficient public transport, adding to feelings of social and economic isolation, is highlighted by several small scale studies conducted in Thornhill, Aberfoyle, the Isle of Skye, Turriff, North west Sutherland, the Isle of Islay and East Ayrshire. It is also mentioned in larger-scale, mixed method studies of the Outer Hebrides (2007), Orkney (2009), and the Highlands and Islands region more generally (2009) ^{10,9,14, 5,17 / 4,10, 14}. For example, poor public transport for accessing rural jobs, services and social activities, as well as high public transport costs, is highlighted as an issue by the 2009 survey of young people in the Highlands and Islands ¹⁴. The issue of high public transport costs is also mentioned by a study published before the cut-off date for this review, suggesting that it could be a long-standing and widespread concern across rural Scotland ¹². Another issue mentioned (in a Scotland-wide survey of 18-24 year olds living in rural areas, and a literature review on rural youth in Scotland - both published in 2000) is the lack of transport to rural job markets across rural Scotland, which is reported to restrict young people's employment choices ^3,4 . Indeed, some study participants thought that employers were put off employing young people with particularly poor public transport connections, as they were perceived to be unreliable ³.

3.11 Family Pressure. A wide range of sources identify parental expectations and family values as an important 'push' factor for young people living in rural areas. In particular, this issue is mentioned by a 2008 Scotland-wide literature review on youth out-migration in rural Scotland; a 2003 Scotland-wide survey and focus group study on 11-16 year olds' views on rural migration; a 2002 questionnaire and in-depth interview study on the views held by out migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh; a 2000 in-depth qualitative study of residents and out-migrants from the Scottish Borders; and a 2004 qualitative study of out-migrants from Roxburgh and North Lewis ^{23,17,16,29, 31}. Such values and expectations are most commonly found to be based on the parents' own life courses, with those who began their careers in an urban area being generally much more likely to encourage their children to do the same.

3.12 Perceptions. A wide range of sources have found that many young people see leaving rural Scotland as key for their personal development, identity formation and transition to adult independence. These studies include a 2008 Scotland-wide literature review; a 2004 survey of out-migrants from Roxburgh and North Lewis; a large-scale mixed methods study of migration in the Outer Hebrides published in 2007; and a large-scale questionnaire and focus group study with 11-16 year olds across Scotland, published in 2003 ^23,31,9,17. In addition, a 2008 Scotland-wide literature review found that many young people see leaving one's rural area as evidence that they are seeking to make the most of themselves and are open to change, whilst they see staying as evidence of arrested development, lack of ambition and closed attitudes ²³. Other negative perceptions of rural areas identified by the literature include:

• The perception that some rural areas have become commuter towns and lost a lot of their identity and charm. This is a finding from a qualitative study that interviewed residents and out-migrants from the Scottish Borders region, published in 2000 ¹⁶, and is an interesting flipside to the argument for better public transport links in rural areas.
• The perception that urban lifestyles are more attractive and offer more social and economic opportunities for young people, as well as more personal freedom and choice ^14,31,18. This is a finding from a large-scale survey of young people living in the Highlands and Islands, published in 2009; a 2001 survey (with follow-up interviews) conducted with out-migrants from Roxburgh and North Lewis; and a 2008 literature review examining some of the issues facing residents of the Cairngorms National Park. However, one Scotland-wide literature review (published in 2000) found that this higher quality of life did not always materialise for rural residents who moved to an urban area ⁴.
• The perception that certain rural communities are too oppressive, and sometimes also too religious, preventing young people from achieving the freedom they desire ⁹. This view is expressed by residents and out migrants from Roxburgh and North Lewis, in a study published in 2001; and by young people living in Outer Hebrides, who took part in a large-scale mixed methods study published in 2007.
• The perception that rural communities are claustrophobic as everyone knows everyone else's business ¹⁷. This finding came from a large-scale, Scotland wide survey of 11-16 year olds, published in 2003.
• The perception that community members' views are too conservative, particularly for those people from minority groups (for example, people who are lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender; and those from an ethnic minority group) ¹⁴. This view is highlighted by a large-scale survey of young people living in the Highlands and Islands, published in 2009. Several other studies report that women in particular tend to view their rural communities as being oppressively conservative. For example a 2002 study, which collected the views of residents and out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh, finds that some women resent what they see as an unwritten code of behaviour and that this resentment can often particularly strong amongst those who are unmarried ³⁰. Responses to a Scotland-wide survey and focus-group study (published in 2003) reveal that some young women resent the social pressure to fulfil traditional stereotypes (still widely held in some rural areas), and see these as a barrier to pursuing their career ambitions ¹⁷.
• Young people's perception that they are undervalued/insignificant in their rural community, and not taken into account when local decisions are made. This view is identified by a large-scale survey of young people living in the Highlands and Islands, published in 2009 ¹⁴.

3.13 Social detachment. Two studies have found that those who feel socially detached are more likely to leave their rural area if they have the chance, whereas those who feel attached tend only to leave it if they feel their options are restricted. This finding comes from a 2000 qualitative study involving interviews with out-migrants and residents from the Scottish Borders region; and a large-scale survey (with follow-up focus groups) conducted with young people from across rural Scotland, published in 2003 ^16,17. In addition, one study found that feeling undervalued by the local community could also motivate young people to leave their rural area ¹⁴.

3.14 Factors identified as contributing to feelings of social detachment amongst young people include geographical isolation, badly paid work, unrewarding jobs, a lack of accessible transport options, housing shortages, small peer groups and a lack of opportunities for socialising. These factors are highlighted by a 2009 survey of young people from across the Highlands and Islands; and a 2003 survey (with follow-up focus groups) conducted with young people from across rural Scotland ¹⁴¹⁷. In addition, differences between young people's values/priorities and those of older community members are linked to feelings of social detachment by a 2003 survey of rural migration conducted with young people from across rural Scotland ¹⁷.

3.15 Lifestyle choices. A lack of choice in the rural lifestyle options available to young people is identified as another 'push' factor by a 2003 survey (with follow-up focus groups), which was conducted with young people from across rural Scotland ¹⁷. Another study notes (without specific reference to rural migration) that the combination of relatively high living costs and lower incomes make the rural lifestyle less suitable for those with few or no savings ^26,5. This study is based on qualitative case study information gathered at four economically deprived locations across Scotland (North West Sutherland, the isle of Islay and East Ayrshire), the results of which were published in 2007.

The main 'push' factors reported to influence school leavers are as follows:

3.16 Higher education. A lack of higher education facilities, particularly easily accessible ones, is highlighted as an important issue by a Scotland-wide literature review published in 2008, and by a 2002 survey and qualitative study undertaken with out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh ^23,2,32. In addition, schools' encouragement for young people to pursue higher education opportunities available elsewhere is identified as a key 'push' factor by a 2007 mixed methods study of migration in the Shetland Islands ⁸. High achievement at school, leading to a reorientation of ambition towards the kinds of career paths and higher education options more readily available in urban areas, was identified as influencing migration choices by a small qualitative study undertaken in the Scottish Borders (published in 2000), and by a large scale survey of young people in the Highlands and Islands (published in 2009) ^16,14 14. A desire to get the best start for one's future career, even if this meant moving away, is also highlighted as a 'push' factor by this latter study ¹⁴.

3.17 Jobs. A lack of jobs available for school leavers, as well as poor access to large job markets, is identified as a key 'push' factor by a wide variety of studies. These include a mixed methods study with out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh published in 2002, a large-scale survey of young people in the Highlands and Islands published in 2009, and a 2008 literature review encompassing Scotland as a whole ^23,14,30. Another key motivator (identified by the 2009 survey of young people in the Highlands and Islands) is the ambition to have 'a good job', which has often become synonymous with urban areas due in part to the higher quality jobs available there ¹⁴. For more issues concerning school leavers' employment in rural areas, please see the above section on young people in general.

3.18 Parental pressure and knowledge of opportunities. Parental expectations and ambitions, as well as the knowledge that parents impart on the opportunities available elsewhere, are identified as an important 'push' factors by several studies. These include one that interviewed 45 stayers and leavers in the Scottish Borders (published in 2000), one that surveyed and interviewed out-migrants from Roxburgh and North Lewis (published in 2002), and one that reviewed literature on the out-migration of young people across Scotland (published in 2008) ^16,28,29,23. These studies found that young people's expectations and ambitions are often based on their parents' own life courses, with those who studied/began their careers in an urban area being much more likely to encourage their children to do the same.

3.19 Desire to experience something different. A curiosity and desire to experience different areas is also identified as a 'push' factor by one large-scale survey of young people in the Highlands and Islands region, published in 2009 ¹⁴. This study finds that such areas do not have to be urban, and often include alternative rural locations, provided they are sufficiently different from where the respondent has grown up. However, the study does acknowledge the perception amongst young people that an urban lifestyle offers a better quality of life, because of its materialism, cosmopolitanism, choice of lifestyle and opportunities for personal and professional development ¹⁴.

3.20 Housing. A lack of affordable housing, making it difficult for school leavers to move out of the parental home and gain independence, is identified as another key 'push' factor for those participating in the 2009 survey of young people in the Highlands and Islands ¹⁴. For more information on the housing issues affecting young people in general, please see the above section on Young People In General.

The literature also identifies some 'push' factors influencing those still at school. These are useful as, even if individuals are not able to act on these motivations straight away, they could be crucial in shaping young people's future decisions to move out of rural areas:

3.21 Academic pressures and parental expectations. Educational achievement, leading to parental and school pressure to pursue education options elsewhere, is identified as a 'push' factor by a small-scale survey with out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh (published in 2002) ³⁰. Participants in this study explained how leaving their rural area was 'not only expected, but also regarded as a natural next step upon completing school'³⁰. Parental expectations and ambitions, as well as the knowledge they impart of the opportunities available elsewhere, is identified as a 'push' factor by this same survey, as well as by a smaller, interview-based study from the Scottish Borders (published in 2000) ^16,30. These expectations are often based on parents' own life courses, with those who studied/began their careers in an urban area being much more likely to encourage their children to do the same.

3.22 Local secondary school provision. Another potential motivator for pre-school leavers (although not raised in the specific context of rural migration) is the closure of local schools, necessitating weekly boarding away from a rural area. This may weaken pre-school leavers' sense of attachment to their local area and act as a bridge for them to move away permanently. This is mentioned by a 2007 qualitative study of three economically deprived areas in rural Scotland (North West Sutherland, Islay and East Ayrshire) ⁵.

People who are Economically Active

The main 'push' factors reported to influence graduates specifically are:

3.23 E mployment. The lack of graduate jobs compatible with the skills and qualifications is a key issue mentioned in a wide range of sources. These include a large-scale mixed methods study of migration in the Outer Hebrides, published in 2007; a mixed methods study of migration in Orkney, published in 2009; a mixed methods study of migration in the Highlands and Islands region more broadly, also published in 2009; and a smaller scale survey / in-depth interview study of residents and out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh, published in 2002 ^10,9,14,30. Other issues mentioned in relation to this (although without specific reference to rural migration) include the high student debt, which is reported to put graduates under more pressure to find well paid, secure employment immediately upon leaving university. Such employment is more widely available in urban areas. This finding is highlighted by an in-depth, qualitative study of three economically deprived areas in rural Scotland (Northwest Sutherland, the island of Islay, and East Ayrshire), published in 2007 ⁵.

The main 'push' factors reported to influence job hunters are:

3.24 Job opportunities. Nearly every study mentions the lack of job opportunities in rural areas, particularly professional jobs, and highlights a perceived lack of choice in the kinds of jobs available. One study identifies particular difficulties for rural couples, with both members trying to find suitable jobs. These issues are identified by a Scotland-wide literature review published in 2008; a Scotland-wide survey of 11-16 year olds published in 2003; a large mixed methods study of the Outer Hebrides published in 2007; a large mixed methods study of population change on Orkney published in 2009; a large mixed methods study of migration in the Shetlands published in 2007; a smaller-scale survey/in-depth interview study with residents and out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh, published in 2004; a large qualitative study of migration choices in three economically deprived regions (North West Sutherland, the Isle of Islay, and East Ayrshire); and a large mixed methods study undertaken in six rural areas with a high population turnover (Skye, Northeast Fife, Kyle and Carrick, Black Isle, Mearns and Crieff), published in 1999 ^{23,17,5,6,31,9}. The context of this literature suggests that a lack of job opportunities may be more of an issue in remote rural areas than accessible rural areas, which (as their label suggests) have better access to large job markets.

3.25 A lack of high quality rural jobs in terms of aspects such as training, career prospects, security and pay. This factor is mentioned by a large-scale survey of 11-16 year olds across Scotland (published in 2003); a large mixed methods study of the Outer Hebrides published in 2007; a large mixed methods study of population change on Orkney published in 2009; a large mixed methods study of migration in the Shetlands published in 2007; a large qualitative study of migration in the Scottish Borders published in 2000; a large qualitative study of migration choices in three economically deprived regions (North west Sutherland, the Isle of Islay, and East Ayrshire); and a smaller scale survey of out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh published in 2002 ^{30,5,9, 10, 8, 16, 17,30}. Indeed, this latter study concludes that the poor quality of jobs available is more of a concern for job hunters than the lack of rural jobs per se ³⁰. Tied to this issue of poor quality rural jobs is the ambition to have 'a good job', which one study identifies as an important 'push' factor (particularly amongst the middle class). This ambition is identified by a small-scale qualitative study of residents and out-migrants from the rural Scottish Borders region, published in 2000 ¹⁶.

3.26 A lack of well paid jobs in rural areas, particularly in the private sector. This factor is identified by a large-scale mixed methods study of migration conducted in the Outer Hebrides (published in 2007) and a large-scale qualitative study of Orkney (published in 2009) ^10,9. In addition the higher concentration of high quality jobs in urban areas is also highlighted - for example, in terms of their pay, training opportunities, and professional career development opportunities. This is highlighted by a survey and in-depth interview study of out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh, published in 2001 ²⁸.

3.27 A lack of job security in rural areas. One 2001 mixed methods study highlights a fear of being made redundant amongst residents and out-migrants from Roxburgh and North Lewis - particularly those involved in the Scottish Borders' declining textile sector ²⁸. A 2009 mixed methods study of population change on Orkney notes the lack of financial security in many rural jobs (particularly those in the public and voluntary sectors), which it suggests could be encouraging residents to move elsewhere. It also notes that this insecurity could be due in part to the predominance of temporary contracts in certain areas, precipitated by funding and budgetary issues ¹⁰. In addition, another study highlights the financial insecurity and paucity of statutory rights associated with agency work, which is a major route into employment for many living in rural Scotland ⁵. This is a qualitative study of residents living in three economically deprived areas of rural Scotland (Northwest Sutherland, the island of Islay, and East Ayrshire), which was published in 2007. The concern is strengthened by the perception of greater job security being available in urban areas, which is identified by a survey / in-depth interview study of out-migrants and residents from North Lewis and Roxburgh, published in 2004 ³¹.

3.28 The quality and accessibility of public transport. A range of sources identify a shortage of public transport links connecting some rural areas to large job markets. This appears to be a particularly key issue for the Highlands and Islands region, as it is mentioned by large scale, mixed method studies of Orkney (2009), and the Outer Hebrides (2007). It is also mentioned by a Scotland-wide survey of 18-24 year olds living in rural areas (although this was without any specific reference to rural migration) ^10,9,14. The consequences identified for these limited transport options (mentioned with regards to Orkney and the Outer Hebrides in particular) include restricting residents' access to job opportunities and important services ¹⁰⁹. In addition, a lack of affordable transport options, both in terms of public and private transport, is identified as a key issue by a 2009 survey of young people in the Highlands and Islands ¹⁴. This issue of prohibitively high public transport costs is also mentioned by a major study published before the cut-off date for this review, suggesting that it may be a fairly long-standing and widespread issue ¹².

3.29 Parental expectations and ambitions. These are an important influence, particularly for younger job seekers and/or those at an early career stage. In particular, the knowledge that parents impart regarding the opportunities available elsewhere has been found to be influential in shaping some rural residents' decisions to stay or go. These factors are identified by a survey / in-depth interview study with residents and out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh (2002);a 2009 survey of young people in the Highlands and Islands; and a study involving 45 in-depth interviews with residents and out-migrants from the Scottish Borders region (2000) ^30,16,28,14. This latter study identifies that such knowledge and expectations are often based on the parents' own life courses, with those who began their careers in an urban area being much more likely to encourage their children to do the same ¹⁶

3.30 The failure of national benefit levels to recognise the fewer job opportunities available for jobseekers in rural areas and the higher cost of living they face ⁵. This has the potential to encourage job seekers to move to urban areas where the cost of living can be lower and the potential for finding a job higher. This issue is identified by a qualitative study of residents living in three economically deprived areas of rural Scotland (Northwest Sutherland, the island of Islay, and East Ayrshire), published in 2007.

The main 'push' factors reported to influence those already in work are:

3.31 One 'push' factor for those already in work is the inability of some rural areas to offer individuals the economic and social lifestyles they desire (for example, in terms of lifestyle choices, peer groups, leisure facilities and spending power). This issue is identified by a 2004 study of out-migration from North Lewis and Roxburgh, which encompassed a literature review, survey and in-depth interviews ³¹.

3.32 A weak private sector in rural areas. Several sources suggest that this may be encouraging potential entrepreneurs to leave certain rural areas and establish businesses elsewhere. This issue is identified by a large-scale study of population change on the Shetland islands (published in 2007), which incorporated a survey, in-depth interviews, focus groups, literature review and a review of official statistics ⁸.

3.33 Other negative factors associated with work in rural Scotland (although not in the specific context of rural migration) include the predominance of fixed-term contracts, which make it difficult to control one's finances and even harder to plan ahead (for example, take out a mortgage). Factors also include the lack of sufficient tax credit systems, which could take into account conditions unique to rural areas such as the higher costs of travelling to work, the seasonal / low-paid / short-term nature of many rural jobs, and the inconsistency in earnings that can result from these factors. These issues are all mentioned by a qualitative study of residents living in three economically deprived areas of rural Scotland (Northwest Sutherland, the island of Islay, and East Ayrshire), which was published in 2007 ⁵.

Families

The main 'push' factors identified by the literature as affecting rural families are:

3.34 Housing. The shortage of affordable housing, which is not always in touch with local earning power is a key 'push' factors for those looking for larger homes in which to start a family. This issue is identified by a 2007 study of population change in the Shetland Islands (which incorporated a survey, in-depth interviews, focus groups, a literature review and a review of official statistics); and a qualitative study of residents living in three economically deprived areas of rural Scotland (Northwest Sutherland, the island of Islay, and East Ayrshire), which was published in 2007 ^5,8.

3.35 Shops. The closure of local shops and a general lack of shops, particularly in more remote rural areas, is identified by a survey / in-depth interview study of residents and out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh, published in 2004 ³¹.

3.36 Schools. The closure of local schools is also identified as an issue by the 2004 study of migration in North Lewis and Roxburgh ³¹.

3.37 The absence of basic services, such as medical and child care facilities, and the poor accessibility of those that are available. These factors are identified by a mixed methods study of migration in North Lewis and Roxburgh (published in 2004), which involved a survey and in-depth interviews with residents and out-migrants; and a large mixed methods study of population change on Orkney published in 2009, which involved a survey, household survey, interviews and focus groups with key stakeholders ^31,10.

3.38 A lack of lifestyle choices. The perception that rural areas do not offer desired economic and social lifestyles is identified in a survey / in-depth interview study of residents and out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh, published in 2004 ³¹.

Older People

3.39 The nature of the literature analysed in this review suggests that older people are an extremely diverse group in terms of their motivations for rural migration, and in terms of the contributions they can make to sustainable rural communities. The main distinction suggested by the literature is between those in the younger half of this age group and those who are older. This is highlighted by one study in particular, which examines the motivations of those on the cusp of this age group, and suggests that those nearing or having just reached retirement are likely to have considerably different motivations and needs than those in their seventies or eighties. This study used a household survey to examine the migration patterns and decisions of 50-64 year olds moving to rural areas in Scotland and England.

3.40 The majority of 'push' factors identified as affecting older people are highlighted by a 2009 mixed methods study of population change in Orkney ¹⁰. They are reported to be:

• Limited supported and residential accommodationavailable for elderly people at a local level, making it more difficult for them to remain in their own communities.
• Poor access to services, particularly healthcare and leisure facilities.
• Inappropriate healthcare provisiongiven the rapidly ageing nature of many rural populations, leading to greater pressure on existing services.
• A high turnover of health practitionersand perceived downgrading of the air ambulance service.

3.41 Other issues are mentioned for older people living in rural areas, although not in the specific context of rural migration. These are highlighted in a 1997 study which, although published before the cut off date for this review, offers invaluable insight into the issues affecting older people living in Harris, Wester Ross, Angus and North Ayrshire. This study was based on a large quantitative survey, in-depth interviews and a literature review. It raises the following issues for older people living in rural Scotland:

• Feelings of social and geographical isolation, including distance from family; a lack of local provision for socialising; and a lack of appropriate public transport ¹¹.
• A shortage of local housing designed for older people ¹¹.
• High costs and poor accessibility of housing maintenance and repair. This particularly problematic for rural areas where housing is often older than in urban areas ¹¹.
• Tied housing in the rural agricultural sector, meaning that when people retire they lose their homes. This problem is compounded by the fact that agricultural workers often earn lower wages as a result of getting rent-free accommodation, and so have fewer savings with which to purchase a new home ¹¹.
• A shortage of care options for elderly people and a lack of facilities to provide these, particularly long-term care options and day care ¹¹.
• Generally low expectations of rural health service provision amongst older people, in terms of both its quality and quantity ¹¹.
• A lack of rural services and a narrow choice in terms of what is available ¹¹.
• A lack of local leisure and recreation facilities for older people, and difficulties in accessing those that do exist ¹¹. This could be particularly important as people's leisure time increases upon retirement.
• Limited public transport options, for example infrequent services, poor timetable integration where several different operators are involved, and poor physical access for those who are less mobile or in wheelchairs ¹¹.
• The high cost of rural living - for example, fuel costs for heating homes ¹¹.
• Limited opportunities for building on past earnings, so that older people are seen purely as a welfare issue rather than contributors to a dynamic society ¹¹.
• Lack of access to quality information on housing, recreation, support, and welfare benefits ¹¹.
• Lack of encouragement for older people to take up the benefits they are entitled to ¹¹.

3.42 A lack of high quality, appropriate healthcare for older people is also highlighted (although not in the specific context of rural migration) by a Scotland-wide literature review concerning older people living in rural areas, which was published in 2003. This study suggests that the shortage could be due to the difficulty of providing healthcare services to small numbers of people dispersed across large geographical areas, which is particularly the case in remote rural Scotland ²⁰. The study also notes an inadequate level of healthcare provision given the rapidly ageing nature of many rural populations.