Factors Influencing Rural Migration Decisions in Scotland: An Analysis of the Evidence

7 POLICY IMPLICATIONS FROM THE LITERATURE

7.1 The literature suggests a number of policy implications associated with rural migration and the development of sustainable rural communities. These are discussed at the start of this chapter, before a summary of the key policy implications that have emerged from this review.

General Implications

7.2 A key theme to emerge from the literature is the acknowledgement that rural migration is growing across Scotland, and requires policy recognition. As one source notes: 'the rural policy agenda needs to be attuned to a demographic situation characterised by both population growth and also high levels of population turnover, and not by population decline as has been the case for much of the twentieth century'⁶. Many of the more specific suggestions below are in keeping with this theme.

7.3 Another general implication is that policy interventions are required, in order to capitalise on the advantages of rural migration and minimise the associated risks. Such interventions could be essential for achieving socially and economically sustainable rural communities. The literature identifies some potential advantages of rural migration as: the creation of new jobs and businesses; increased financial support for certain local shops and services; and more sustainable rural populations. Some potential negative effects of rural migration are identified as: a rapid rise in house prices putting many options out of touch with local earning power; more pressure on certain types of housing; disjointed local communities and a lack of social cohesion; and a potential shortage of people in certain age groups, hindering social and economic sustainability. These examples were all highlighted by a mixed methods study on the re-population of rural Scotland (published in 2000), which involved a household survey, qualitative interviews, and an analysis of 1991 census data ²⁷.

7.4 Several sources identify a need to attract return migrants back into rural areas, in order to support their social and economic sustainability. This suggestion was made by a household survey and in-depth interview study with residents and out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh (published in 2001 and 2004); a 2009 survey of young people from across the Highlands and Islands; a Scotland-wide literature review on the drivers of youth out migration from rural areas (published in 2008); and by a 2003 survey and focus group study examining 11-16 year olds' views on migration across Scotland ^{31,28,14,4,23,17}. The main reason given for attracting more return migrants back into rural areas is their potential to bring new skills, experience, and key human and social capital to rural areas, which have the potential to bolster their economic and social sustainability. This reason is given by a mixed methods study (involving a household survey and in-depth interviews with residents and out-migrants from North Lewis and Roxburgh, published variously in 2001 and 2004; a survey of young people's views on migration from across the Highlands and Islands, published in 2009 ^31,28,14; a Scotland-wide literature review on the drivers of youth out-migration from rural Scotland, published in 2008 ²³; and a 2003 Scotland-wide survey of 11-16 year olds' views of migration, which was followed up by focus groups with 15-18 year olds. As this latter study explains, return migrants offer great benefits to rural communities as they 'appear to possess a range of personal and social resources, they are prepared to leave the security they perceive in their local area in order to confront the challenges - and the possibilities - of personal development the 'outside' world has to offer' ¹⁷.

7.5 The literature's suggestions for how to attract return migrants back to rural areas include:

• Taking measure to reduce the stigma surrounding return migration (particularly amongst young people) - suggested by a household survey and interview study undertaken with residents and out migrants from Roxburgh and North Lewis (published variously in 2004) ³¹.
• Re-establishing contact to demonstrate how new opportunities have developed in the region since migrants have left - suggested by a 2009 survey of young people's views from across the Highlands and Islands ¹⁴.
• Offering support to overcome perceived barriers and hurdles associated with return migration to rural areas (for example, sourcing appropriate job opportunities and housing) - suggested by a small scale qualitative study involving 21 interviews with members of the Scottish diaspora currently living in Colorado, America; and by a 2009 survey of young people's views across the Highlands and Islands ^34,14.
• Raising awareness of opportunities across the region, including employment, education and lifestyle opportunities - suggested by a 2009 survey of young people's views across the Highlands and Islands ¹⁴.

7.6 Coupled with this, many sources suggest that policy should not prevent young people from leaving rural areas. For example, this is suggested by a household survey and interview study undertaken with residents and out migrants from Roxburgh and North Lewis (published variously in 2001, 2004 and 2006); and by a 2009 survey of young people's views on migration from across the Highlands and Islands ^31,28,32,14. The reasons given for this stance are well summarised by the former study, which states that 'only by leaving rural areas can young adults acquire the necessary skills to participate in endogenous development …migration is a pre-requisite for rural economic regeneration' )³².

7.7 The literature also highlights the need for policy to recogniseregional differencesin the factors likely to affect rural migration decisions, as well as in the effects that such rural migration is likely to have. Sources that identify this include a 1999 study of rural migration in six case study areas selected for their high population turnover (Skye, North East Fife, Kyle and Carrick, Black Isle, Mearns and Crieff), which involved a literature review, large-scale household survey, interviews, and a consultation exercise with stakeholder agencies and organisations ⁶. This geographical variability is also noted by a mixed methods study of rural youth unemployment (published in 2000), which included a survey of 817 18-24 year-olds with recent experience of unemployment, and in-depth interviews with young people and rural employers which took place in four case study areas (Cumnock, Argyll, Dumfries and rural Stirling) ³. In addition, it is noted by a survey of 15-30 year olds' views across the Highlands and Islands region, published in 2009 ¹⁴. One source (a Scotland wide literature review on young people in rural Scotland, published in 2000) illustrates this with a quote from the Cabinet Office saying: ' rural areas do not all share the same characteristics: some are prosperous, others are not; and some have better access to services, facilities and higher levels of employment than others' ⁴. This source goes on to explain that rural variation could be caused by differences in an area's distance from the nearest city, the diversity of the local economy, dependence on tourism, and proximity to training and educational establishments. Another source (a Scotland-wide literature review examining the effects of rural migration) does add, however, that some rural issues were likely to be applicable to most areas- for example, 'housing provision, transport, labour markets, retail and social services, the environment and community animation'⁶.

7.8 One source (a 2009 survey of young people in the Highlands and Islands) adds that policy should also recognise that factors influencingmigration decisions canvary on an individual basis, depending on the personal preferences of migrants ¹⁴. It suggests that policy could consider different types of individual leaver / stayer / returner in order to ensure that its initiatives are targeted towards the most appropriate group. In the same vein, this source suggests that policy could pay less attention to groups such as 'reluctant stayers' and 'committed leavers', who may well be determined to leave rural areas as soon as possible regardless of most policy interventions.

7.9 This 2009 survey of young people in the Highlands and Islands also highlights the need to attract and retain both young and older people in rural areas, in order to make these regions more sustainable and dynamic. However, the urgency of retaining each of these groups varies between different locations in the Highlands and Islands, depending on other influences associated with their economic and social sustainability ¹⁴.

7.10 In addition, one source highlights a need to more consistently evaluate policy approaches that aim to address rural migration issues, so as to help build on past successes and avoid pitfalls. This source is a mixed methods study, published in 1999, which took place in six rural areas selected for their high population turnover (Skye, North East Fife, Kyle and Carrick, Black Isle, Mearns and Crieff), and involved a large household survey of incomers, local movers and long-term residents; qualitative interviews with individual residents; and a consultation exercise with Community Councils, and statutory agencies ¹⁹.

7.11 One last key theme reoccuring throughout the literature is the need to better account for rural migration trends when planning rural policies and developing rural infrastructure. The following sections provide more specific suggestions for how this could be done.

Implications for Rural Employment and Training

7.12 Every source identified in this search highlights the importance of employment opportunities for shaping rural migration decisions.

7.13 Several sources mention the importance of attracting more economic migrants into rural areas, in order to safeguard their economic sustainability. Suggestions for how to do this include:

• Widening the employment opportunities available for skilled workers in rural areas- this is noted by a 2007 mixed methods study of migration in the Outer Hebrides, which involved a large-scale survey and follow up focus groups. It was also mentioned by a 2007 study examining how to attract and retain young professionals in Dumfries and Galloway, the methodology for which is not available ^9,15
• Developing more links between research institutes and productive economic sectors in order to help promote high value employment, for example in the field of renewable energy. This is mentioned by a large-scale mixed methods study of population change in the Shetlands, which involved a large-scale survey, interviews, focus groups and a literature; and also by a large-scale mixed methods study of population changein Orkney, which involved a survey, household survey, interviews and focus groups with key stakeholders ^{10 8}.
• Offering more financial incentives and training opportunities to attract and retain a highly skilled and academically qualified workforce. This is mentioned by a 2006 mixed methods study of migration to/from North Lewis and Roxburgh, which involved a household survey, questionnaire, and in-depth interviews conducted with out-migrants ³².
• Supporting long-term changes to Scotland's working culture, particularly more flexible working styles such as working from home and flexi-time options, which may widen employment options for those living in rural areas - this is mentioned by a large, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which used an electronic survey, a household survey, interviews and focus groups ¹⁰.
• Supporting the development of a more entrepreneurial culture in rural Scotland. Examples could include offering training on how to be an entrepreneur; widening broadband provision; strengthening collaboration between the public sector, further education establishments and the private sector; providing incubator units/core business support services to stimulate business start-ups; fostering a culture of entrepreneurialism amongst islanders; attracting entrepreneurs from elsewhere; and providing awareness-raising campaigns on enterprise opportunities that focus on key target groups (for example school-leavers). These suggestions are made in a 2007 mixed methods study of population change on the Shetland islands, based on the evidence gathered from literature review, survey, interviews and focus groups with local people ⁸.

7.14 In addition, several sources provide suggestions for how new jobs could be created in rural areas. These include:

• Devolving more public sector jobs to remote areas - this is suggested by a Scotland-wide study (published in 2008), which involved a web-based survey, semi structured interviews, a literature review, and focus groups held in eight rural areas selected for their geographical spread (Castle Douglas, Coupar, Inverurie, Pitlochry, Tarbert, Stornoway, Inverness, and Lerwick) ^22,10.
• Attracting more private sector investors in the outer Hebrides to help diversify the economy. This is suggested by a 2007 mixed methods study of migration in the Outer Hebrides, which involved a large-scale survey and follow up focus groups ⁹.
• Encouraging investment from Scottish diaspora members living abroad (for example, in America) and supporting the establishment of international business links with them. This is suggested by a small scale qualitative study on the Scottish diaspora (published in 2007), which involved interviews with 27 members of the Scottish diaspora currently living in Colorado, America ³⁴.
• Promoting and supporting a stronger enterprise culture in Orkney, perhaps in the higher education and renewable energy sectors - for example, by teaching young people entrepreneurial skills, and developing small start-up/incubator units to allow people to start out in business. This is suggested by a mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which used an electronic survey, a household survey, interviews and focus groups ¹⁰.
• Pursuing opportunities to develop the renewable energy economy in the Shetlands - this is suggested by a 2007 mixed methods study of population change on the Shetland islands, based on the evidence gathered from literature review, survey, interviews and focus groups with local people ⁸.
• Supporting large job creation initiatives, such as the major oil-related developments at Sullom Voe in the Shetlands - this is also suggested by the 2007 mixed methods study of population change on the Shetland islands, based on the evidence gathered from literature review, survey, interviews and focus groups with local people ⁸.

7.15 One source also suggests that job creation could be targeted at return migrants in particular (for example, graduates and post graduates) rather than school leavers, as many young people have made up their minds to leave rural areas from a very early age and would be hard to persuade otherwise. This is suggested by 2001 study of out migration from Roxburgh and North Lewis, which involved a literature review, representative household survey, a survey of out-migrants, and qualitative in-depth interviews with 25 out-migrants ²⁸. The authors explain: ' Creating local education and employment opportunities may delay out-migration but it is unlikely to significantly reduce its scale…Few out-migrants could be described as reluctant movers. The ingrained migration expectations of the young will be difficult to break. Such improvements may however encourage greater return flows, and help stem the outflow of older groups' ²⁸.

7.16 Alongside job creation, one study identifies a need to market rural jobs more effectively, as many specialist and skilled jobs are difficult to recruit for in certain areas. This is a finding from a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (incorporating an online survey, household survey, focus groups and interviews with key stakeholders), published in 2009. It calls for a more positive marketing of careers in farming and food production, in order to support and safeguard this major strand of economic activity. It also suggests that rural job opportunities could be marketed in a more coordinated way, perhaps by a joint venture with the private sector to develop a coordinated recruitment website ¹⁰.

7.17 Several sources highlight the need to improve the quality of existing employment in order to attract and retain more skilled workers in rural areas. This is identified by a 2006 mixed methods study of migration in North Lewis and Roxburgh, which involved a household survey, questionnaire and interviews with out-migrants; and by a 2000 mixed methods study of rural youth unemployment, which involved a survey and in-depth interviews with young people and employers in four rural areas (Cumnock, Argyll, Dumfries and rural Stirling) ^{32, 3}. The latter study identifies high quality employment as being particularly important in remote rural areas, where the demand for skilled workers is often dispersed over a much wider geographical area ³. Suggestions for how to improve the quality of employment in rural areas include enhancing career progression opportunities ¹⁴; providing jobs and work experience consonant with graduate level qualifications ¹⁴; and providing incentives for employers to provide more training, in order to enhance their employees' career prospects ¹². These are mentioned by a large-scale survey of young people from across the Highlands and Islands, with an accompanying online discussions forum, published in 2009 ¹⁴.

7.18 In addition to this general issue of employment quality, several sources highlight the importance of providing rural training and career progression incentives more specifically. For example:

• Increasing the number and range of vocational training opportunities and apprenticeships was thought to have the potential to allow more young people to stay in the Outer Hebrides. This is identified by a large scale mixed methods studyof migration in the Outer Hebrides, published in 2007, which involved desk-based research; Interviews with service-providers and stakeholders, an internet survey with current and past residents of the Outer Hebrides, a survey of employers, focus groups across the Outer Hebrides and on the mainland, interviews with employers and international in-migrants, and a scenario-planning workshop ⁹.
• Greater promotion of career progression in the jobs already available. For example, a recent initiative promoting a 'career pathway' through social care in Orkney is praised. This is highlighted by a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney, published in 2009, which incorporated an online survey, household survey, focus groups and interviews with key stakeholders. This study emphasises that such promotion may require closer joint working with colleges and other education and training providers, and that this should be done using local institutions wherever possible. Moreover, it adds that any career progression programme should be flexible enough to support the training needs of both older employees and students ¹⁰.

7.19 As well as training, one source highlights the importance of providing work experience and access to informal networks in rural areas, particularly for those at the start of their careers, as these may sometimes be more effective than training for providing bridges into skilled employment in rural areas. This is mentioned by a 2000 mixed methods study of rural youth unemployment, which involved a survey and in-depth interviews with young people and employers in Cumnock, Argyll, Dumfries and rural Stirling ³.

7.20 Several studies also highlight the need to provide more protection and support for those who already have jobs in rural areas. For example:

• One study suggests that policy could restrict the predominance of temporary contracts and short-term posts on Orkney, as these have been identified as damaging population stability. This is identified by a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney, published in 2009, which incorporated an online survey, household survey, focus groups and interviews with key stakeholders ¹⁰.
• Another study concludes that national government, local government (education authorities) and enterprise organisations should work together to develop an integrated policy to deliver training for young people in rural areas. This suggestion is made by a mixed methods study of life across rural Scotland (published in 2008), which involved a literature review, online survey of rural residents, telephone interviews with policy makers and service providers, and focus groups with community representatives in 8 different rural areas (Castle Douglas; Coupar; Inverurie; Pitlochry; Tarbert; Stornoway; Inverness; and Lerwick) ²².
• The above study also states that enterprise organisations could promote the benefits of mobile working and home working to local employers, to help address issues associated with accessing employment in rural areas ²¹.

7.21 In addition, the results of a household survey across rural Scotland conclude that attracting English migrants has the potential to revitalise rural areas, as they often bring greater than average skills and academic attainment, as well as a willingness to involve themselves in the lives of the local community. This is identified by a large scale household survey on English migration to rural Scotland, published in 2009 ²⁵.

7.22 Importantly, however, one source highlights the importance of noting that (even with improvements to local employment prospects) young people may still have the desire to move away, in order to experience a new way of life and/or achieve greater independence 32. This source is a 2006 mixed methods study of migration in North Lewis and Roxburgh, which involved a household survey, questionnaire and interviews with out-migrants.

Implications for Rural Housing

7.23 A key theme is the need for more housing to be developed in rural areas. Suggestions for doing this include:

• Ensuring that the planning system has a long-term developmental focus, particularly in remote rural areas - for example, by making sufficient land available for self-build housing, with connection to water and sewerage services. This is suggested by a qualitative study involving a literature review, in-depth interviews and focus groups in three economically deprived areas of rural Scotland(North West Sutherland, the island of Islay and East Ayrshire) ⁵.
• Assessing housing demand and support for housing development in threatened communities. This is suggested by a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which used an online survey, household survey, focus groups and interviews with key stakeholders ¹⁰.

7.24 There is also widespread demand for more low-cost and affordable rural housing, both in terms of purchase and upkeep. This is called for by a large-scale survey of young people from across the Highlands and Islands, published in 2009; a 2004 mixed-methods study of in-migration in the Highlands and Islands, which incorporated a literature review, small household survey and interview study with migrants from three relatively remote rural areas (Arran, Skye and Raasay, and Wester Ross); a mixed methods study of life across rural Scotland (published in 2008), which involved a literature review, online survey of rural residents, telephone interviews with policy makers and service providers, and focus groups with community representatives in 8 different rural areas (Castle Douglas; Coupar; Inverurie; Pitlochry; Tarbert; Stornoway; Inverness; and Lerwick); and by a large scale mixed methods studyof migration in the Outer Hebrides, published in 2007 ^19,14,22,9.

7.25 One suggestion for achieving more low cost, affordable rural housing is providing more rental and shared equity properties, in order to help share the higher costs of rural housing in certain areas. This is suggested by a 2007 mixed methods study of migration to/from the Shetland Islands, which used a literature review, web based survey, interviews and focus groups with key stakeholders, and a scenario planning workshop ⁸.

7.26 Another key theme is the need for a greater choice of housing in rural areas ¹⁴. This includes the need for rural housing provision to become more flexible, in order to cater for the housing needs of young single people, people at an early career stage, young families, and older people ^22,10. These suggestions are made by a large-scale survey of young people from across the Highlands and Islands, published in 2009; a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which incorporated an online survey, household survey, focus groups and interviews with key stakeholders; and a mixed methods study of life across rural Scotland (published in 2008), which involved a literature review, online survey of rural residents, telephone interviews with policy makers and service providers, and focus groups with community representatives in eight different rural areas (Castle Douglas; Coupar; Inverurie; Pitlochry; Tarbert; Stornoway; Inverness; and Lerwick).

7.27 Another source suggests that in-migrants in particular could be better supported in terms of their housing needs, for example, by offering 'gateway' housing as a transition for those moving to Orkney ¹⁰. This is suggested by a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which incorporated an online survey, household survey, focus groups and interviews with key stakeholders.

7.28 Another key theme is the need to protect rural communities from the negative impact of second home ownership. For example, one source identifies the increase of second home owners in rural areas as a real worry for rural communities, as they do not contribute to the life of the community or the local economy, but still compete for housing and drive prices up. This source is a mixed methods study of life across rural Scotland (published in 2008), which involved a literature review, online survey of rural residents, telephone interviews with policy makers and service providers, and focus groups with community representatives in eight different rural areas (Castle Douglas; Coupar; Inverurie; Pitlochry;Tarbert; Stornoway; Inverness; and Lerwick) ²².

7.29 Several sources also note the importance of improving housing for older people^11,10. Although one of these studies was published before the cut off point for this review, it is nevertheless important given the fact that no comparably large and insightful study on the lives of older people living in rural Scotland has been published since. This source was a 1997 mixed methods study examining older people's lives in rural Scotland ¹¹, and its suggestions for how to improve housing for older people in rural areas include:

• Continuing to support schemes such as Care and Repair (one of the most effective policies in terms of improving the quality of life for older people living in poor housing conditions), and the Personal Housing Plan (which presents older people with all the housing options so that they can make more informed choices).
• Issuing 100% grants for maintenance to be made available to those in need.
• Facilitating Small Repair Grant schemes to allow for minor essential repairs to be carried out.
• Improving the rights of older people living in tied or privately rented accommodation to encourage and enforce landlords to maintain their properties sufficiently. Housing rights for tied tenants need to be improved and a forum provided to assist them in upholding these rights. More information and advice on the housing options available to tied tenants when they retire need to be made available.
• Providing more supported accommodation in rural areas, such as sheltered housing, as there is a relative shortage of this in much of rural Scotland given the recent rise in demand.
• Providing more advice and information on improvements on housing improvements for older people ¹¹.
• Providing more support for older people seeking to rectify minor domestic problems, such as changing light bulbs, servicing smoke alarms and other small repairs ²⁰ .
• Addressing the lack of maintenance culture, for example by providing more information on the need to maintain housing and the means to do so; by encouraging building societies to take a more active role in maintaining housing ¹¹.
• Increasing the supply of affordable local housing, particularly that suited for older people - for example Barrier Free Housing, built to a standard which allows easy access and use by those with mobility problems ¹¹.
• Providing funding for older people to adapt their homes where necessary ¹¹.
• Planning for more residential accommodation to meet the needs of the increasingly ageing population in particular areas ¹⁰.

7.30 One study highlights the particular importance of providing housing options that are desirable, accessible and affordable to younger people, as this could encourage higher rates of economic migration ⁹. This is a large scale mixed methods study of migration in the Outer Hebrides, published in 2007, which involved desk-based research; Interviews with service-providers and stakeholders, an internet survey with current and past residents of the Outer Hebrides, a survey of employers, focus groups across the Outer Hebrides and on the mainland, interviews with employers and international in-migrants, and a scenario-planning workshop. Another study suggests that housing providers could identify opportunities to work with a local college and other training providers, in order to develop housing targeted at young people entering further education or training 10. This study is a large-scale, mixed methods examination of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which incorporated an online survey, household survey, focus groups and interviews with key stakeholders.

Implications for Rural Services

7.31 One theme to emerge is that any rural service infrastructures should support both the growing elderly populations in many rural areas and the influx of younger families²², as both are important for rural community dynamism and sustainability. This is identified by a number of sources, the only one published after the cut off date for this review being a mixed methods study of rural life across Scotland (published in 2008), which involved a literature review, online survey of rural residents, telephone interviews with policy makers and service providers, and focus groups with community representatives in eight different rural areas (Castle Douglas; Coupar; Inverurie; Pitlochry; Tarbert; Stornoway; Inverness; and Lerwick) ²².

7.32 The literature also suggests that additional services could be introduced to support and encourage people to move into rural areas. Suggestions for such services include: providing a point of contact to keep them up to date with emerging opportunities across the region; providing answers to potential migrants' queries; providing contact with other people who have already moved to the area; and offering advice to overcome some of the perceived hurdles of moving to the region (including sourcing job opportunities, housing) ¹⁴. These suggestions are made by a large-scale survey of young people from across the Highlands and Islands, published in 2009.

7.33 Several sources also identify a need for high quality, community-focused health and social care services in rural areas. For example, they note how in some areas of the Highlands and Islands, community-based enterprises have developed innovative ways of meeting the different service needs of remote communities and, with public service budgets likely to come under increasing pressure, this could be a good way of delivering local services that are both appropriate and good value for money. This need is identified by a 2007 mixed methods study of population change on the Shetland Islands, which included a literature review, web-based survey, interviews and focus groups with key stakeholders, and a scenario planning workshop; and also by a large scale mixed methods studyof migration in the Outer Hebrides (published in 2007), which similarly involved desk-based research; interviews with service-providers and stakeholders, an internet survey with current and past residents of the Outer Hebrides, a survey of employers, focus groups with employers and international in-migrants, and a scenario-planning workshop ^{8, 9.}

7.34 More accessible services are also called for by two studies. One of these was published in 2007 and involved a literature review, in-depth interviews and focus groups with rural residents in three economically deprived areas of rural Scotland (North West Sutherland, the island of Islay and East Ayrshire) ⁵. The other is a 2004 mixed-methods study of in-migration in the Highlands and Islands, which involved a literature review, small household survey and interview study with migrants from three relatively remote rural areas (Arran, Skye and Raasay, and Wester Ross) ³.

Suggestions for improving the accessibility of existing rural services include:

• Extending opening hours to counteract the fact that services are often further away and require a longer travel time to access ⁵.
• Providing more flexible modes of delivering affordable childcare facilities in sparsely populated areas, perhaps through crèches located in local primary schools or mobile services ³.

7.35 One study emphasises the demand for anonymous and confidential services in rural Scotland - ie: those provided by someone who does not know your personal business ⁵. This is identified by a 2007 qualitative study exploring financial inclusion and capability across rural Scotland, which involved a literature review, in-depth interviews and focus groups.

7.36 Another theme is that financial services could be more suited to the unique nature of rural living. One source calls for more flexible financial support systems (for example, tax credits, bank accounts, loans, mortgage products, and billing periods for Council Tax), which allow for buffer zones to be built in. It suggests that this could help mitigate seasonal income fluctuations and the financial insecurity of being on a fixed term contract, which is a reality for many rural residents ⁵. This source is a 2007 qualitative study exploring financial inclusion and capability across rural Scotland, which involved a literature review, in-depth interviews and focus groups.

7.37 Several sources give specific suggestions for how to improve services for older people. Although a prominent source used here was published before this study's cut off date of 1999, it is still important as no comparably in-depth study on the lives of older people in rural Scotland was found to have been published since. The suggestions for how to improve services for older people in rural Scotland include:

• Improving access to health services through improved communication and co-ordination between health services and transport providers, protecting the Patient Transport Service, maintaining local hospitals as centres for the care of older people so that they don't have to travel as far, and multi-skilling community health workers so that they are more versatile and current staff can be spread over a wider area. This suggestion is given by a 1996 study on the lives of older people living in rural Scotland, which involved a statistically representative survey of older people living in Harris, Wester Ross Angus and North Ayrshire, and follow up interviews ¹¹.
• Improving mental health services, in particular raising awareness and training on mental health issues amongst professionals who are in daily contact with older people ²⁰. This suggestion is made by a Scotland-wide literature review on the issues affecting older people living in rural areas, published in 2003.
• Supporting local shops and services (including post offices) which are essential for older people and much easier for them to access, and can also act as informal social support networks. This suggestion is given by a 1996 study on the lives of older people living in rural Scotland, which involved a statistically representative survey of older people living in Harris, Wester Ross Angus and North Ayrshire, and follow up interviews ¹¹.
• Providing shops and GPs locally so that older, less mobile community members can still access them ²⁰. This suggestion is made by a Scotland-wide literature review on the issues affecting older people living in rural areas, published in 2003.
• Creating more formalised social support networks for older people. By co-ordinating volunteers with professionals operating in this field (for example, social workers and nurses). This suggestion is given by a 1996 study on the lives of older people living in rural Scotland, which involved a statistically representative survey of older people living in Harris, Wester Ross Angus and North Ayrshire, and follow up interviews ¹¹.
• Ensuring that the services provided strike a balance between what professionals think older people should receive, and what older people themselves think they need to help them remain independent. This suggestion is made by a Scotland-wide literature review on the issues affecting older people living in rural areas, published in 2003 ²⁰.
• Including older people in the social and recreational life of the community as a whole by using existing clubs and providing small-scale 'twinning grants' (for example, twinning between clubs for younger and older people). This suggestion is made by a 1997 study on the lives of older people living in rural Scotland, which involved a statistically representative survey of older people living in Harris, Wester Ross Angus and North Ayrshire, and follow up interviews ¹¹.
• Addressing the shortage of sheltered housing in rural Scotland, as this type of older adult care provision is often run by the private sector, making it economically unfeasible to invest in very rural areas. This suggestion is made by a 2006 literature review comparing retiree in-migration in rural Scotland and the USA²¹.
• Providing intensive home care and home-based services that allow older people to remain in their local community rather than moving elsewhere, which can destroy their community ties and informal social support networks. This suggestion is made by a Scotland-wide literature review on the issues affecting older people living in rural areas, published in 2003 ²⁰.
• Addressing the rising pressure on existing services caused by the growing numbers of retired migrants entering certain rural areas ²⁰. This suggestion is made by a Scotland-wide literature review on the issues affecting older people living in rural areas, published in 2003.
• Exploring opportunities for resource sharing (both financial and in terms of expertise) between agencies and groups providing services for older people. This could also help ensure that issues affecting older people are considered in connection with the community as a whole. This suggestion is made by a 1996 study on the lives of older people living in rural Scotland, which involved a statistically representative survey of older people living in Harris, Wester Ross Angus and North Ayrshire, and follow up interviews ¹¹.
• Recognising that, although those currently over 65 may not be confident using IT, this is likely to change over the coming decade, opening up new opportunities for service provision to older people in rural areas ²⁰. This suggestion is made by a Scotland-wide literature review on the issues affecting older people living in rural areas, published in 2003.
• Planning ahead to cater for the expected increase of older in-migrants to certain rural areas ²¹. This suggestion is made by a 2006 literature review comparing retiree in-migration in rural Scotland and the USA.

7.38 One good example of a community care service for older people is identified in the literature - not by a research study or an evaluation, but by a report on the development of the Howard Doris Centre (published in 1999). The development of this centre was part of the broader Strathcarron Project, which is an initiative aiming to meet the needs of older people who wish to stay in the Strathcarron community in Wester Ross, but who require more support in order to do so ⁷. The report on the Howard Doris Centre suggests that, by following its example, other successful community care initiatives could be developed and supported by policy which effectively meet the needs of an elderly population living in remote rural areas.

The characteristics identified as benefitting the Howard Doris Centre include: A focus on placing members of the local community 'in the forefront of planning and developing the scheme, with statutory agencies, social work, housing and health in a support role'. Encouragement of joint working between several service providers (for example, housing, social work and health) to ensure that the support offered is all-encompassing and comprehensive. The support the centre gained from independent agencies committed to the principles of community development (for example, Age Concern). The building of a focal point (a centre) to raise the profile and provide a public interface. The identification of local leaders with relevant skills and insight, prepared to take the initiative and bring people together who share the vision. Encouragement for local community members to work openly and honestly together, under the supervision of a local steering group large and committed enough to sustain the vision. The identification of shared objectives amongst local community members. The identification of gaps in the local community group's knowledge and experience, and access to training and support where needed to secure the success of the project. Anticipation of barriers and the ability to think of different ways of working in order to avoid them.

Implications for Rural Education

7.39 One source highlights the need to maintain and promote high quality schooling across rural Scotland , particularly in terms of facilities and teaching standards. This is a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change in the Outer Hebrides (published in 2007). This study adds that such improvements could help attract young families into rural areas and promote the image of rural areas as being family friendly ⁹.

7.40 Other studies highlight the need to better support young people choosing to pursue higher education opportunities in rural areas. For example, one study suggests offering mobility grants for rural youth wishing to access educational opportunities which are not available locally. This is a 2000 mixed methods study of rural youth unemployment, which involved a survey and in-depth interviews with young people and employers in four rural areas (Cumnock, Argyll, Dumfries and rural Stirling) ³.

7.41 Rather than trying to rival urban areas in terms of higher education, one source suggests that rural areas could focus on postgraduate opportunities, in order to attract highly skilled in-migrants who could help develop the local economy ¹⁰. This is suggested by a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which incorporated an online survey, household survey, focus groups and interviews with key stakeholders.

7.42 One source suggests that there could be better awareness raisingof current higher education provision in the Highlands and Islands. This is mentioned by a large-scale survey of young people from across the Highlands and Islands, published in 2009 ¹⁴.

7.43 However, the literature suggests that there are some limits in terms of what education policy can do to stem the out migration of young people from rural Scotland. For example, a 2009 study of population change on Orkney concludes that rural higher education institutions there will find it near impossible to compete with their urban counterparts, as the latter can often provide a much wider variety of courses and extra curricular activities, and also often hold a higher academic status ¹⁰. Another source notes that, even with significant improvements to rural higher education institutions, young people may still wish to move away in order to try something new and/or gain greater independence. This is highlighted by a 2006 study on the link between migration and economic regeneration in North Lewis and Roxburgh, which involved a large-scale household survey, questionnaire, and in-depth interviews with out-migrants ³².

Implications for Rural Leisure Facilities

7.44 Several sources call for more high quality leisure and recreation facilities for young people¹⁴. The most recent of these is a large-scale survey of young people from across the Highlands and Islands, published in 2009. Some examples of successful facilities for young people, which may even have changed their perception of a rural area, include the Lewis Sports centre, An Lanntair; Taigh Chearsabhagh in North Uist; Kildonan in South Uist and the Youth Café in Barra ⁹. These are all highlighted by a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change in the Outer Hebrides (published in 2007), which involved desk-based research, interviews with service-providers and stakeholders, an internet survey with residents, a survey of employers, a series of focus groups with employers and international in-migrants, and a scenario-planning workshop with key agencies tasked with taking forward policies.

7.45 There is a similar demand to improve leisure and recreation facilities for older people living in rural Scotland . Although this is emphasised most by a study published before the cut off date for this review, such demands have been included here as no comparably in-depth study of older people living in rural Scotland was found within the date range specified ¹¹. Particular suggestions from this study on how to improve leisure facilities for older people living in rural Scotland include:

• Improving older people's access to leisure facilities through more accessible and affordable public transport links.
• Asking older people what kind of leisure facilities they want, and involving them in planning, so as to make sure they are appropriate.
• Ensuring that leisure facilities are affordable.
• Ensuring that leisure facilities are suitable for older people - for example, by providing access for people with mobility difficulties.

Implications for Rural Transport

7.46 Several sources call for improved public transport provision and transport options in rural areas. This is mentioned by a 2007 qualitative study exploring financial inclusion and capability across rural Scotland, which involved a literature review, in-depth interviews and focus groups; a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which incorporated an online survey, household survey, focus groups and interviews with key stakeholders; and a large-scale survey of young people from across the Highlands and Islands, published in 2009 ^{5, 10, 14}. The issue of transport is also mentioned by a 2000 mixed methods study of rural youth unemployment, which involved a survey and in-depth interviews with young people and employers in four rural areas (Cumnock, Argyll, Dumfries and rural Stirling); and by a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change in the Outer Hebrides (published in 2007) ^{3, 9}.

7.47 One source identifies a demand for a more integrated and affordable transport networks between the Islands, and between the islands and the mainland, in order to maximise opportunities and minimise barriers to economic growth. This is mentioned by a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change in the Outer Hebrides(published in 2007), which involved desk-based research, interviews with service-providers and stakeholders, an internet survey with residents, a survey of employers; a series of focus groups with employers and international in-migrants, and a scenario-planning workshop with key agencies tasked with taking forward policies ⁹.

7.48 Another key suggestion is for more subsidies across existing transport modes, in order to address issues of peripherality and market failure in many existing services operating around rural Scotland. This is also mentioned by a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change in the Outer Hebrides (published in 2007), which involved desk-based research, interviews with service-providers and stakeholders, an internet survey with residents, a survey of employers, a series of focus groups with employers and international in-migrants, and a scenario-planning workshop with key agencies tasked with taking forward policies ⁹.

7.49 One source specifically recommends the Transport to Employment Programme (T2E) as ' an effective, reliable and popular transport service for job seekers in rural areas'. It adds that this scheme can contribute to economic and social sustainability, by offering ' an excellent return on investment for funding bodies and healthy economic benefits', as well as reducing the out-migration of young job seekers and women of child bearing age ³⁵. This was a finding from a 2008 report on the Transport to Employment (T2E) Service, which included an evaluation of the service involving analysing booking and invoicing data, and surveying the programme's users, operators and stakeholders. It is useful in describing the benefits of a centrally coordinated, demand responsive, shared transport service, and in suggesting that this could be essential in more sparsely populated remote rural areas where public transport services ' are unlikely to operate any significant network on a purely commercial basis'.

The key features of the T2E Programme are: The scheme's goals are 'to overcome barriers met by persons who do not have opportunities for learning and employment, to increase childcare initiatives to support access to work and to improve opportunities for women .' It uses shared taxis to provide access to the workplace, training and childcare. Passengers book their journeys in advance and pay on a monthly basis. It operates in the remote rural communities of East Sutherland, Easter Ross and Southern Caithness. The benefits of the T2E Programme include: Increased employment: it has enabled 95% of those surveyed to gain employment, which they would otherwise have been unable to access. A reduced likelihood of young women moving away from the local area: 70% of the T2E users are female. Improved access to learning and employment opportunities for young people: 36% of users were 16-19 years old. Benefits for local businesses, such as improved staff attendance, easier management of staff rotas, and a greater likelihood of employing staff from the local area.

7.50 One study comments that, given the frequently higher costs of rural living and financial issues incurred by this, policy could offer discounted tax and/or petrol costs for car users where no adequate public transport to the job markets is available ⁵. This source in question is a 2007 qualitative study exploring financial inclusion and capability across rural Scotland, which involved a literature review, in-depth interviews and focus groups.

7.51 One source (a 2009 survey of young people from across the Highlands and Islands) calls for policy measures to make it easier for rural residents to travel to and from work¹⁴. Another source adds that introducing the Air Discount Scheme in Orkney has increased passenger numbers and helped to boost fragile communities. This is highlighted by the large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which incorporated an online survey, household survey, focus groups and interviews with key stakeholders.

7.52 There is also a call for better transport links to services and recreational facilities for young people. This is mentioned by those participating in a large-scale survey of young people from across the Highlands and Islands, published in 2009 ¹⁴.

7.53 One source gives suggestions for how to improve transport for older people specifically. Although this source was published before the cut off date for this review, its suggestions have been included here as no comparably in-depth study of older people living in rural Scotland was found within the date range specified ¹¹. Its suggestions include:

• providing more widespread transport options targeted specifically at older people (for example, dial a bus, taxi-card, community car schemes);
• improving physical access to rural public transport services;
• supporting the development of services at a more local level.

7.54 One study includes suggestions for how to improve transport for younger people. This is a 2000 mixed methods study of rural youth unemployment, which involved a survey and in-depth interviews with young people and employers in four rural areas (Cumnock, Argyll, Dumfries and rural Stirling) ³. Its suggestions include:

• offering travel subsidies for young people living in rural areas;
• providing young people with driving lessons as part of the school curriculum;
• encouraging employers to operate flexi-time policies, to enable young people to make more use of existing bus services.

The Need to Change Perceptions

7.55 There is a need to change some of the perceptions associated with rural migration, particularly amongst younger people. As one study explains: ' initiatives need to be put in place that facilitate the return of former migrants at a young age as a positive step, rather than the currently perceived 'backward' step indicating individual failure. Accordingly, exogenous or 'topdown' strategies are needed at least initially to encourage the required human resource capital into depopulating areas, and enable that capital to undertake development options' ³¹. This suggestion comes from a mixed methods study of migration in North Lewis and Roxburgh, which involved a household survey, questionnaire and interviews with out-migrants, published in 2004.

7.56 Another study highlights the need to address the quality of life perceptions associated with declining peripheral areas in order to attract more in-migrants with job creation and economic regeneration potential ³². This was a mixed methods study of migration in North Lewis and Roxburgh, which involved a household survey, questionnaire and interviews with out-migrants, published in 2006.

Community Empowerment

7.57 Whilst this review has shown that migration can be key for determining the sustainability and consequent empowerment of rural communities, it also suggests that measures to improve rural community empowerment may help address the key issues relating to rural migration.

7.58 In particular, several sources suggest that greater community involvement at a grass-roots level could help retain residents in rural areas, by making them feel less detached, and by helping to develop services and facilities that are more in touch with their needs. This is mentioned by three large scale, mixed method studies of migration in Orkney (2009), the Shetlands (2007), and the Outer Hebrides (2007) ^{10, 9, 8}.

7.59 Suggestions for how to involve and empower rural communities include:

• Identifying opportunities for devolving more powers and budgets to community enterprises (for example, through Community Development Trusts) in order to support voluntary efforts, as well as provide rural communities with a psychological boost ¹⁰. This suggestion is made by a large scale mixed methods study of population change on Orkney, published in 2009, which involved a literature review, survey, in-depth interviews, focus groups and workshops.
• Involving older people in local decision-making, as this group is particularly prone to social isolation and poses particularly complex issues for policy makers ¹¹. This suggestion is made by a mixed methods study published in 1996, which has been included because of its unrivalled insight into the lives of older people living in rural areas. This study was based on a statistically representative survey and follow up interviews with older people living in 4 case study areas (Harris, Wester Ross Angus and North Ayrshire).
• Involving young people in local decision-making, as the needs and inputs of this group are frequently ignored ¹². This suggestion is also made by the above mixed methods study, published in 1997, but has been included because of the key issue posed by youth out-migration in many rural areas. This source highlights the importance of actively encouraging young people to become involved in local decision-making ¹². It also suggests that young people could be encouraged to get involved in activities that have cross-generational appeal, so that they become better integrated into rural communities. In terms of how such involvement could be achieved, the source suggests that young people could be provided with the skills to become involved in community development and taught about civic awareness through the formal school curriculum ¹². It also suggests that area-based youth forums could be established, linking in with existing community councils and other agencies.

7.60 The Scottish Government, in partnership with the Economic and Social Research Council, ran a public policy seminar - 'Rural community empowerment in the 21 ^st Century: building a "can-do" culture' - in March 2010. The event aimed to bring the knowledge and expertise of leading social scientists to give a fresh, practical perspective on community dynamism. A wide range of stakeholders shared their experiences and ideas, and discussed the challenges and opportunities facing communities. Many of the issues identified in the literature review were raised by the speakers and/or discussed during the seminar. For the seminar pamphlet, the speakers' presentations and a summary of the programme and issues discussed, please see: http://www.esrc.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/about/CI/events/esrcseminar/ruralcommunityseminar.aspx

7.61 Issues relating to community empowerment were also discussed at a seminar held by the University of the Highlands and Islands in May 2010, in relation to a research study included in this review: 'Young people in the Highlands and Islands: understanding and influencing migration choice.' For outputs relating to the seminar, please see: http://www.crrs.uhi.ac.uk/search?SearchableText=young+people+Highlands+and+Islands

7.62 In addition to these suggestions for how to empower rural communities, the rural migration literature highlights the need for local mechanisms to better support the process of community involvement, so that a balance of views is heard. One source (a Scotland-wide literature review, published in 1990 explains that this might be particularly important for rural areas experiencing high rates of migration as: ' in further developing consultation procedures, agencies may need to be more sensitive to migration-led changes in social mixes, notably the differential ability and willingness between…groups…to participate in such activities'⁶.

7.63 Several sources suggest that policy could play a key role in offering support and advice to help integrate those moving into rural areas. They suggest that this could be key for attracting more people to rural areas, and retaining them ^8,19,10. This is highlighted by a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which involved an electronic survey, household survey, focus groups, interviews, scenario planning workshops, and the development of a population model. It is also mentioned by a 2007 mixed methods study of migration to/from the Shetland Islands, which used a literature review, web based survey, interviews, focus groups with key stakeholders, and a scenario planning workshop. This latter study suggests that such support might be best achieved by local government (for example, Shetland Council) and other public sector bodies (for example, schools and colleges). The literature offers plenty of suggestions for what form this support and advice could take, including:

• Promoting greater exchange between in-migrants and local people - this is suggested by a mixed methods study of in-migration in the Highlands and Islands, which involved a literature review, small household survey, and interview study with in-migrants and return migrants living in Arran, Skye, Raasay, and Wester Ross ¹⁹. Another study (an international literature review of rural migration across Scotland, published in 1999) highlighted the importance of such exchanges by explaining that tensions can be due to 'the failure by long-term and local mover residents to appreciate that migrants bring benefits, and a failure by recent incomers from outwith Scotland to appreciate that problems have resulted'⁶.
• Addressing the underlying causes of friction between in-migrants and residents, such as the limited housing supply, low wage economy and shortage of jobs in certain rural areas. This is also suggested by the mixed methods study of in-migration in the Highlands and Islands, which involved a literature review, small household survey, and interview study with in-migrants and return migrants living in Arran, Skye, Raasay, and Wester Ross ¹⁹.
• Providing support services for incomers to help them integrate effectively into local job markets and communities (for example, welcome packs and outreach workers). This is suggested by a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which involved an electronic survey, household survey, focus groups, interviews, scenario planning workshops, and the development of a population model ¹⁰.
• Raising awareness of in-migrants' needs amongst long-term residents, and building capacity for the local community to help address these. This is mentioned by large-scale, mixed methods studies of population change on Orkney (published in 2009) and Shetland (published in 2007), which each involved surveys, focus groups, interviews, and scenario planning workshops ⁸.
• Building trust between incomers and long-term rural residents, in order to enhance cooperation and community empowerment. This is suggested by a survey on trust across northern Scotland (published in 2008), which involved an exit poll survey conducted in Aberdeen, Aberdeenshire, Caithness and Sutherland at the 2007 Scottish election ¹ .
• Supporting the growth of local networks for assisting those looking for paid employment or looking to set up their own rural businesses. This is suggested by a Scotland-wide literature review of rural out-migration, published in 2008 ²³.

7.64 One source, however, highlights that this integration is likely to be more possible in some geographical areas than others. It explains that integration could depend on such factors as the number of migrants, and their difference from the local population in terms of aspects such as their economic status and socio-cultural confidence. This source is a Scotland-wide literature review of rural out-migration, published in 2008 ²³.

7.65 Other sources suggest that policy might also want to offer more support and advice for those thinking of moving to rural areas. Again, this is suggested as a means for attracting more people into rural areas, and retaining them as long-term residents. This suggestion is made by a mixed methods study conducted across six rural areas in Scotland, which involved a statistically representative household survey and follow-up interviews. It is also highlighted by a 2007 mixed methods study of migration to and from the Shetland Islands, which used a literature review, web based survey, interviews and focus groups with key stakeholders, and a scenario planning workshop ^8,19,27.

7.66 One source offers suggestions for what form this support and advice could take. This source is a large-scale, mixed methods study of population change on Orkney (published in 2009), which involved an electronic survey, household survey, focus groups, interviews, scenario planning workshops, and the development of a population model ¹⁰, and its suggestions include:

• Marketing the careers available in rural areas (for example, farming and food production) so that an individual's decision to move to a rural area does not incur major compromises to their career.
• Marketing rural job opportunities in a coordinated way, so that (again) an individual's decision to move to a rural area does not incur major compromises to their career. It is suggested that such marketing could be achieved by promoting a joint venture between the public and private sectors to develop a co-ordinated recruitment website.
• Promoting career progressions programmes so that (again) an individual's decision to move to a rural area does not incur major compromises to their career.
• Marketing the environment and quality of life available in rural areas.

Protecting and Promoting the Environment

7.67 Throughout the literature, the environment is highlighted as an important consideration when planning how to attract more in-migrants into rural Scotland. Several studies highlight the important role that a high quality environment can play in attracting in-migrants, and they often represent participants as being keen to protect it. However, one study highlights the importance of striking a balance between environmental protection and rural development, as rural job and strong local economies are also key for sustainable communities.

7.68 The need to protect and promote Scotland's rural environment is raised by two large-scale, mixed methods studies of population change in Orkney (2009) and the Outer Hebrides (2007). The latter summarises this need by highlighting the requirement to 'retain and market the environmental and quality of life assets that are one of the key attractions to in-migrants' (4)⁹. In addition, one study highlights the potential that developing rural tourism could have for attracting migrants into rural Scotland ¹⁹. This study was a large mixed methods study involving a literature review, small household survey, and interviews with in-migrants and return migrants living in Arran, Skye, Raasay, and Wester Ross.

7.69 However, a key point from the Orkney population change study (2009) is the need to balance environmental protection with rural economic development needs. This study notes that, although the natural environment needs to be protected on Orkney, this should not automatically be a higher priority than building new developments which could lead to job creation.

Main Policy Implications

7.70 With so many key rural migration issues, and a plethora of ideas for addressing them, there is value in exploring the main policy implications that have emerged from this review.

7.71 The literature reviewed here suggests that the main policy implications in terms of rural migration should relate to the following, for which more details are provided below:

• The provision ofhigh quality jobsin rural areas;
• The provision of affordable housing optionsin rural areas;
• The provision of support and advice for people who have moved torural areas;
• The provision of support and advice for people thinking of moving torural areas;
• Involving both long-term residents and in-migrantsfrom all age and life-stage groups in local decision making;
• Developing initiatives to encourage return migration;
• Ensuring that policy makers take into account the different needs of accessible and remote rural areas.

7.72 In addition to the above implications, this review also highlights a need to evaluate policies that could have an impact on individuals' rural migration decisions, and share best practice amongst policy makers working at different levels and in different policy areas. Indeed, the evidence base used for this study suggests a shortage of such policy evaluations. Both evaluating and sharing best practice could be key for building on past successes and developing more effective ways of addressing the issues surrounding rural migration.

7.73 Importantly, the literature also demonstrates that decisions by individuals to settle in or leave rural Scotland are often heavily influenced by the availability of housing, transport, education and job opportunities. Therefore, policy makers at all levels, and in a number of different policy areas, need to take rural demographic considerations into account. In the Scottish Government, the mainstreaming of rural policy ensures that rural interests are considered in policy development. However, it is not clear from the literature whether rural issues are taken into account in a similar way by local and community interests.

7.74 The first of the main policy implications listed above, and one which has been highlighted by the majority of studies used in this review, is the need for high quality jobs throughout rural Scotland. That is, jobs with good salaries, training, career progression, job security, job satisfaction, and jobs compatible with higher education qualifications. The literature's suggestions for how to do this include:

• providing incentives for rural employers to offer training and help employees access training opportunities elsewhere;
• reducing the predominance of short term and temporary contracts in rural areas;
• attracting more private sector investors to rural areas;
• devolving more public sector jobs to rural areas;
• offering financial incentives to highly skilled and/or academically qualified in-migrants; and
• developing more links between higher education / research institutes and productive economic sectors.

7.75 The literature also gives suggestions for how to increase the volume of jobs available in rural areas. These include:

• improving access to jobs in rural areas;
• widening opportunities for those in existing employment to work remotely from rural areas;
• supporting the development of higher education institutions capable of offering new employment choices; and
• developing a more entrepreneurial culture in rural communities.

7.76 In addition, the literature highlights a need for more affordable housing options in rural areas. This appears to be a key determinant for migration to or from rural areas, particularly for young people, families and older people. Much of the literature calls for more housing options in rural areas, in order to maintain a sustainable demographic balance in rural communities. Housing options that have been identified as being in particularly short supply are supported housing and sheltered accommodation for older people, and shared rental accommodation for young people seeking to move out of their family home. The literature's suggestions for widening the supply of affordable housing options in rural areas includes providing:

• support for low cost home ownership (for example, grants and housing assistance);
• council accommodation in certain areas where this is scarce;
• council housing for young people in particular;
• joint initiatives with higher education and/or training providers to develop housing for young people;
• rental and shared equity properties; and
• support for initiatives addressing the housing needs of older people in particular.

7.77 The literature also highlights a need to provide support and advice for those thinking of moving to rural areas. Suggestions include creating online forums for communication between long-term residents and those thinking of moving; and establishing co-ordinated websites advertising rural job opportunities as and when they arise.

7.78 In addition, the literature highlights a need to provide support and advice for people moving into rural areas, to encourage such moves and minimise many of the potentially negative aspects associated with rural migration. Suggestions for what form this support could take include:

• supporting in-migrants' housing requirements (for example, through 'gateway' housing initiatives);
• aiding their integration into the local job market; and
• supporting their integration into the local community (for example, by promoting exchange between in-migrants and residents, and addressing the underlying causes of friction such as limited housing and jobs).

There is, however, a recognition that integration will be more possible in some geographical areas than others, depending on factors such as the number of migrants, and their social, economic or demographic difference from the resident population.

7.79 The literature also identifies a clear need to involve both long-term residents and in-migrants in local decision making and to include people from all age and life-stage groups. This is important not only for rural community empowerment, but also for stemming the out-migration of valuable community members, and attracting others who are capable of making a contribution.

7.80 Suggestions for how to improve local involvement in decision making include:

• identifying opportunities for devolving more powers and budgets to community enterprises;
• providing people with the skills and awareness needed to contribute most effectively to decision making;
• targeting older people and young people particularly, as evidence suggests they are least likely to be included in local decision making at present; and
• involving all age groups in activities that have cross generational appeal, to support the full integration of rural communities.

7.81 The literature also identifies a need for policy initiatives to encourage return migration, particularly amongst those in their twenties and thirties who have significant potential to boost rural economies. Many sources suggest a focus on return migration, given its potential for bringing new skills, expertise and human capital to rural areas, and for creating new jobs and businesses. Moreover, given the particular lack of 20-30 year olds in rural Scotland compared to the rest of Scotland, such a strategy could also help achieve more sustainable and well balanced rural populations.

7.82 Suggestions for how to encourage return migration include:

• addressing the negative perceptions associated with return migration to rural areas (particularly those held by young people);
• keeping in contact with out-migrants to make them aware of new opportunities (both economic and social) that have arisen in the area since they left;
• providing advice for those considering returning;
• promoting rural areas as family friendly; and
• encouraging people living away from their rural community to become more involved in local decision-making and community life (for example, through online forums), making them feel more included and attached to local life.

7.83 This review also highlights the need to recognise regional differences in the factors likely to affect rural migration decisions and, consequently, the kinds of policy approaches that may be most effective. This information points to a need for more area-specific policies, in order to effectively target the key regional issues impacting on rural migration. In particular, there are likely to be considerable differences in the issues faced by remote and accessible rural areas. For instance, throughout this review, remote Scottish islands such as the Shetlands and Harris have presented very different concerns (for example, in terms of the availability of jobs and training) when compared to more accessible rural regions such as the Scottish Borders. Moreover, the GROS statistics used to contextualise this review show that more accessible rural areas often experience higher rates of in-migration by older people/retirees, whereas an increasingly ageing population is not such a pressing policy issue for their more remote counterparts ¹². The geographically variable nature of rural issues would, therefore, be most effectively met by a more geographically variable policy response, perhaps designed at a more local level, rather than a one size fits all approach. Nevertheless, it should be remembered that the main themes (for example, jobs and affordable housing options) are likely to be important in most rural areas, even if the specific issues associated with these vary.