Fisheries Management Measures within Scottish Offshore Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) - Strategic Environmental Assessment Environmental Report

Footnotes

1 Scottish Government (2022). Marine Environment [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

2 The Environmental Assessment of Plans and Programmes Regulations 2004 [online] (accessed 07/03/2024)

3 Historic Environment Scotland (HES), Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) and NatureScot.

4 Priede, I.G. (2018) Deep sea Fishes Literature Review. JNCC Report No. 619. JNCC, Peterborough. ISSN 0963-8091

5 ICES WGDEEP. (2017). Report of the Working Group on the Biology and Assessment of Deep-sea Fisheries Resources (WGDEEP), 24 April–1 May 2017, Copenhagen, Denmark. ICES CM 2017/ACOM:14. 702 pp.

6 Regulation (EU) 2016/2336 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2016 establishing specific conditions for fishing for deep sea stocks in the north-east Atlantic and provisions for fishing in international waters of the north-east Atlantic and repealing Council Regulation (EC) No 2347/2002 (accessed 07/10/2022)

7 Scottish Government (2022). Marine Environment: Conservation [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

8 Scottish Government (undated). Marine environment: Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

9 SNH (2021) Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

10 JNCC (2019) Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

11 SNH (2021) Special Areas of Conservations (SACs) [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

12 JNCC (2020) SACs with marine components [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

13 The inshore area extends from the coast to the limit of the territorial sea (i.e. 12 nautical miles (nm) off the coast)

14 The offshore area extends from the limit of the territorial sea to the UK Continental Shelf Claim Limit (i.e. 12-200nm off the coast).

15 The Environmental Assessment of Plans and Programmes Regulations 2004 [online] (accessed 25/07/2024)

16 Historic Environment Scotland (HES), NatureScot and Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA).

17 NatureScot (2021) The MPA Network [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

18 Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

19 NatureScot (2022). Scotland’s Marine Protected Area network [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

20 SNH/JNCC (2012) Commissioned Report No. 547: Advice to the Scottish Government on the selection of Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) for the development of the Scottish MPA network [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

21 JNCC (2022) Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

22 JNCC (2019) Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

23 OSPAR Commission (2022) Marine Protected Areas [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

24 The Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

25 UK Government (2022) Changes to Legislation Results [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

26 The Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2017 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

27 The Conservation of Offshore Marine Habitats and Species Regulations 2017 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

28 The Offshore Petroleum Activities (Conservation of Habitats) Regulations 2001 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

29 The Conservation of Habitats and Species (Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

30 Scottish Government (2020). EU Exit: habitats regulations in Scotland [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

31 ibid

32 ibid

33 The Conservation of Habitats and Species (Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

34 Scottish Government (2020). EU Exit: habitats regulations in Scotland [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

35 Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

36 The Conservation of Habitats and Species (Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

37 Scottish Government (2020) EU Exit: habitats regulations in Scotland [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

38 Scottish Government (2014) 2014 Consultation on the Management of Inshore Special Areas of Conservation and Marine Protected Areas Overview [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

39 Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

40 European Commission (undated) Common fisheries policy (CFP) [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

41 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive) [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

42 Although it is proposed that Soil, Water and Climatic Factors be scoped in under ‘Biodiversity, Flora and Fauna’, relevant policies relating to each are presented under their own headings for clarity.

43 JNCC (2022) About Marine Protected Areas [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

44 ABPmer (2013) The Scottish Marine Protected Area Project – Developing the Evidence Base for Impact Assessments and the Sustainability Appraisal. Final Report to Marine Scotland. Report R.2097, July 2013

45 Scottish Government (2020). Island Communities Impact Assessments: guidance and toolkit. [Online] (accessed 16/11/2022)

46 The Environmental Assessment of Plans and Programmes Regulations 2004 (legislation.gov.uk) (accessed 25/07/2024)

47 Marine Scotland (2022) SEA of Proposed Offshore MPA Fisheries Management Measures – Strategic Environmental Assessment Screening and Scoping Report March 2022.

48 Soil has been interpreted as marine sediments for the purposes of this assessment.

49 Thompson, K., Miler, K., Johnston, P., and Santillo D. (2017). Storage of carbon by marine ecosystems and their contribution to climate change mitigation. Greenpeace Research Laboratories Technical Report (Review) 03-2017. (accessed 12/10/2022).

50 Scottish Government (2013) Planning Scotland’s Seas: 2013 – Possible Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas Consultation Overview – Strategic Environmental Assessment Report [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

51 Scottish Government (2014) 2014 Consultation on the Management of Inshore Special Areas of Conservation and Marine Protected Areas Overview [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

52 Scottish Government (2014) MPA/SAC Consultation Environmental Assessment [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

53 Scottish Government (2018) SEA of Marine Proposed Special Protection Areas Strategic Environmental Assessment Environmental Report. (accessed 12/10/2022)

54 Marine Scotland (2019) Sustainability Appraisal of proposed Marine Protected Areas Sustainability Appraisal [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

55 Marine Scotland (2019) Proposed Deep Sea Marine Reserve Strategic Environmental Assessment Environmental Report [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

56 Scottish Government (2013) Planning Scotland’s Seas: Draft Sectoral Marine Plans for Offshore Renewable Energy in Scottish Waters – Strategic Environmental Assessment: Environmental Report and Appendix A [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

57 Scottish Government (2019) SEA of Sectoral Marine Plan for Offshore Wind Energy Strategic Environmental Assessment Environmental Report [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

58 Scottish Government (2014) Management Proposals of Inshore Fisheries Groups: Strategic Environmental Assessment Post Adoption Statement [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

59 Scottish Government (2016) Wild seaweed harvesting: strategic environmental assessment - environmental report [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

60 Scotland’s Environment (2014). Offshore Waters. [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

61 Marine Scotland (2011) Scotland's Marine Atlas: Information for The National Marine Plan

62 Marine Scotland (2020) Case study: Deep sea vulnerable marine ecosystems. Marine Scotland Assessment. [online] (accessed 13/10/2022)

63 UK Marine Monitoring and Assessment Strategy (UKMMAS) (2010) Charting Progress 2: An assessment of the state of UK seas

64 Scottish Government (2020). Offshore Wind Energy in Scottish Waters: Regional Locational Guidance [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

65 Marine Scotland (2020) Case study: Deep sea vulnerable marine ecosystems. Marine Scotland Assessment. [online] (accessed 13/10/2022)

66 T. J. Webb, E. Vanden Berghe, R. O'Dor. (2010) Biodiversity's big wet secret: The global distribution of marine biological records reveals chronic under-exploration of the deep pelagic ocean, PLoS One [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

67 K. J. Mengerink, C. L. Van Dover, J. Ardron, M. Baker, E. Escobar-Briones, K. Gjerde, L. A. Levin. (2014) A call for deep-ocean stewardship, Science. [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

68 Marine Scotland (2021). Deep Sea. Scotland’s Marine Assessment 2020 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

69 Marine Scotland (2020) Case study: Deep sea vulnerable marine ecosystems. Marine Scotland Assessment. [online] (accessed 13/10/2022)

70 NBN Atlas Scotland (2022) Search for dolphin [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

71 Marine Scotland (2020) Cetaceans. Marine Scotland Assessment. [online] (accessed 13/10/2022)

72 Marine Scotland (2020) Cetaceans. Marine Scotland Assessment. [online] (accessed 13/10/2022)

73 Whaletrack. UiT (2018) In: The Arctic University of Norway [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

74 O’Neil, Katie E. Cunningham, Emily G. Moore, Daniel M. (2019) Sudden seasonal occurrence of humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae in the Firth of Forth, Scotland and first confirmed movement between high-latitude feeding grounds and United Kingdom waters- Marine Biodiversity Records- 12 - 1

75 Marine Scotland (2020) Seals. Marine Scotland Assessment. [online] (accessed 13/10/2022)

76 Marine Scotland (2020). Fish. Marine Scotland Assessment. [online] (accessed 14/10/2022)

77 Priede, I.G. (2018) Deep sea Fishes Literature Review. JNCC Report No. 619. JNCC, Peterborough. ISSN 0963-8091

78 OSPAR commission (2019) List of Threatened and / or Declining Species and Habitats [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

79 Marine Scotland (2011) Scotland's Marine Atlas: Information for The National Marine Plan.

80 NatureScot (2022) Priority Marine Features in Scotland’s Seas [online] (accessed 07/10/2022)

81 ibid.

82 Marine Scotland (2020) Deep Sea Fish. Marine Scotland Assessment. [online] (accessed 13/10/2022)

83 Scottish Government (2011) Scotland's Marine Atlas: Information for the National Marine Plan.

84 Marine Scotland (2020). Seabirds. Marine Scotland Assessment. [online] (accessed 13/10/2022)

85 Nature Scot (2022) Highly pathogenic avian influenza (bird flu) - Guidance for site managers. [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

86 ibid

87 Nature Scot (2020) NatureScot has today welcomed the designation of 12 Special Protection Areas (SPAs) and four Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Scotland’s seas. [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

88 The inshore area extends from the coast to the limit of the territorial sea (i.e. 12 nautical miles (nm) off the coast)

89 The offshore area extends from the limit of the territorial sea to the UK Continental Shelf Claim Limit (i.e. 12-200nm off the coast).

90 JNCC (2022) Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

91 Nature Scot (2022). Fair Isle MPA [Online] (accessed 07/09/2022).

92 Nature Scot (2022). The MPA Network [online] (accessed 12/10/2022).

93 Scottish Government (2022) Ramsar sites contributing to the MPA Network [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

94 Nature Scot (2022). The MPA Network [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

95 The Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2017, the Conservation of Offshore Marine Habitats and Species Regulations 2017, and the Offshore Petroleum Activities (Conservation of Habitats) Regulations 2001 are collectively known as the Habitats Regulations

96 The Conservation of Habitats and Species (Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019 [online] (accessed 25/07/2024)

97 Scottish Government (2020). EU Exit: habitats regulations in Scotland [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

98 Nature Scot (2020). Priority marine features in Scotland's seas. [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

99 The Scottish Government, 2015. Scotland’s National Marine Plan. A single framework for managing our seas. [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

100 Scottish Government (2019) GeMS – Scottish Priority Marine Features (PMF). [online]. (accessed 12/10/2022).

101 Marine Scotland (2011) Scotland's Marine Atlas: Information for The National Marine Plan

102 Marine Scotland (2013) Marine Atlas Data Sources: General & Overall Assessment. (accessed 12/10/2022)

103 The Scottish Government (2013) FEAST – Feature Activity Sensitivity Tool. [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

104 JNCC (2022) Marine Pressures-Activities Database (PAD) v1.5 2022. [online] (accessed 14/10/2022)

105 Taken from Marine Scotland (2008) Scotland's Seas: Towards Understanding their State, Chapter 2

106 Inall, M.E. & Sherwin, T.J. (2006). SEA7 Technical Report - Hydrography. SAMS Report No. 251, 76pp

107 Holmes, R., Fraser, J., Gunn, V., Henni, P., Jacobs, C., Shannon, P. & Unnithan, V. (2002). DTI Strategic Environmental Assessment Area 7 (SEA7) Geological Metadata. British Geological Survey, Commissioned Report CR/02/275, 123pp

108 Holmes, R., Cooper, R. & Jones, S. (2003). DTI Strategic Environmental Assessment Area 4 (SEA4): Continental shelf seabed geology and processes. British Geological Survey Commercial Report CR/03/081

109 Masson, D.G. (2003). Seafloor sediments and sedimentary processes on the outer continental shelf, continental slope and basin floor. DTI SEA4 Report, 49pp [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

110 Bett, B.J. (2012). Seafloor biotope analysis of the deep waters of the SEA4 region of Scotland’s seas. JNCC Report No. 472, JNCC, Peterborough, ISSN 0963-809 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

111 Baxter, J.M., Boyd, I.L., Cox, M., Donald, A.E., Malcolm, S.J., Miles, H., Miller, B. & Moffat, C.F. (Editors) (2011)

112 Holmes, R., Fraser, J., Gunn, V., Henni, P., Jacobs, C., Shannon, P. & Unnithan, V. (2002). DTI Strategic Environmental Assessment Area 7 (SEA7) Geological Metadata. British Geological Survey, Commissioned Report CR/02/275, 123pp

113 Holmes, R., Cooper, R. & Jones, S. (2003). DTI Strategic Environmental Assessment Area 4 (SEA4): Continental shelf seabed geology and processes. British Geological Survey Commercial Report CR/03/081

114 Masson, D.G. (2003). Seafloor sediments and sedimentary processes on the outer continental shelf, continental slope and basin floor. DTI SEA4 Report, 49pp [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

115 Hughes, A.J., Narayanaswamy, B.E. & Bett, B.J. (2003). SEA 4: An overview of the benthic ecology of the Faroe-Shetland Channel. 63pp [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

116 Barchan sand dunes are crescent-shaped and can be found in high-energy areas. The ‘horns’ of the crescent face down current. The dunes may be up to 120 m across and the slopes can support abundant fauna such as sea-pens and anemones

117 Mud diapirs are vertical intrusions of mud through fractures or zones of weakness of over-lying brittle rock layers. The resulting structures can be mushroom-shaped, mound-like or elongated ‘dykes’ depending on the geological materials involved

118 Bett, B.J. (2012). Seafloor biotope analysis of the deep waters of the SEA4 region of Scotland’s seas. JNCC Report No. 472, JNCC, Peterborough, ISSN 0963-8091 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

119 Davies, A.J., Narayanaswamy, B.E., Hughes, D.J. & Roberts, J.M. (2006). An introduction to the benthic ecology of the Rockall – Hatton Area (SEA 7). A Report for the Department of Trade and Industry [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

120 Howell, K.L., Davies J.S., Jacobs, C. & Narayanaswamy, B.E. (2009). Broadscale Survey of the Habitats of Rockall Bank, and mapping of Annex I Reef Habitat. JNCC Report No. 422, JNCC, Peterborough, ISSN 0963-8091 (accessed 12/10/2022)

121 Davies, A.J., Narayanaswamy, B.E., Hughes, D.J. & Roberts, J.M. (2006). An introduction to the benthic ecology of the Rockall – Hatton Area (SEA 7). A Report for the Department of Trade and Industry [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

122 ibid

123 SNH (2013) Assessing the sensitivity of geodiversity features in Scotland’s seas to pressures associated with human activities. Report 590 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

124 Defra (2019) Marine Strategy Part One: UK updated assessment and Good Environmental Status. October 2019 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

125 UKMMAS (2022) Introduction to UK Marine Strategy [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

126 UKMMAS (2022) Summary of progress towards Good Environmental Status [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

127 UKMMAS (2022) Summary of progress towards Good Environmental Status [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

128 Burrows, M.T., Hughes, D.J., Austin, W.E.N., Smeaton, C., Hicks, N., Howe, J.A., Allen, C., Taylor, P. & Vare, L.L. 2017. Assessment of Blue Carbon Resources in Scotland’s Inshore Marine Protected Area Network. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No. 957

129 Kröger S, Parker R, Cripps G & Williamson P (Eds.) 2018. Shelf Seas: The Engine of Productivity, Policy Report on NERC-Defra Shelf Sea Biogeochemistry programme. Cefas, Lowestoft. DOI: 10.14465/2018.ssb18.pbd [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

130 ibid

131 Tinker, J.P. and Howes, E.L. (2020) The impacts of climate change on temperature (air and sea), relevant to the coastal and marine environment around the UK. MCCIP Science Review 2020, 1–32 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

132 Sweetman, A. K. et al 2017 Major impacts of climate change on deep-sea benthic ecosystems. Elem Sci Anth, 5: 4

133 Marine Scotland 2020. Ocean acidification. Marine Scotland Assessment. (accessed 12/10/2022)

134 ibid

135 Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership (2020). Marine Climate Change Impacts Report Card 2020. [online] (accessed 13/10/2022)

136 Scottish Government (2013) Strategic Environmental Assessment: Guidance [online] (accessed 10/10/2022)

137 Marine Scotland (2022) MPA Monitoring Strategy. (accessed 16/11/2022)

138 Although it is proposed that Soil, Water and Climatic Factors be scoped in under ‘Biodiversity, Flora and Fauna’, relevant policies relating to each are presented under their own headings for ease of reading.

139 European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 [online] (accessed 25/07/2024)

140 Scottish Government (undated). Marine environment: Conservation (MPAs) [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

141 Scottish Government (undated) Marine and Fisheries [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

142 OSPAR Commission (undated) OSPAR Convention [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

143 OSPAR Commission (undated) Marine Protected Areas [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

144 OSPAR Commission (undated) The OSPAR Acquis: Decisions, Recommendations & Agreements [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

145 UKMMAS (2021). Introduction to UK Marine Strategy [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

146 ibid

147 ibid

148 Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

149 Regulation (EU) 2016/2336 of the European Parliament and the Council of 14 December 2016 establishing specific conditions for fishing for deep sea stocks in the north-east Atlantic and provisions for fishing in international waters of the north-east Atlantic and repealing Council Regulation (EC) No 2347/2002. (accessed 07/10/2022)

150 HM Government (2011) UK Marine Policy Statement [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

151 Scottish Government (2015) Scotland’s National Marine Plan – A Single Framework for Managing Our Seas [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

152 Directive 2014/89/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 July 2014 establishing a framework for maritime spatial planning [online] (accessed 06/07/2022)

153 European Commission (2017). Maritime spatial planning [online] (accessed 06/07/2021)

154 Scottish Government (2015) Scotland’s National Marine Plan – A Single Framework for Managing Our Seas [online] (accessed 06/07/2022)

155 Marine Scotland (2022) National Marine Plan Review 2021 [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

156 Convention on Biological Diversity (2022) The Convention on Biological Diversity [online] (accessed 11/07/2022)

157 Convention on Biological Diversity (undated). Conference of the Parties (COP) [online] (accessed 06/07/2022)

158 ibid

159 NatureScot (2021) Countdown to COP15 [online] (accessed 06/07/2022)

160 Convention on Biological Diversity (2022) A new global framework for managing nature through 2020; First detailed draft agreement debuts [online] (accessed 22/07/2022)

161 Scottish Government (2014) Scotland’s National Marine Plan – A Single Framework for Managing Our Seas [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

162 OSPAR Commission (undated) Marine Protected Areas [online] (accessed 06/07/2022)

163 OSPAR Commission (undated) List of Threatened and/or Declining Species & Habitats. (accessed 06/07/2022)

164 The Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2017, the Conservation of Offshore Marine Habitats and Species Regulations 2017, and the Offshore Petroleum Activities (Conservation of Habitats) Regulations 2001 are collectively known as the Habitats Regulations

165 The Conservation of Habitats and Species (Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019 [online] (accessed 25/07/2024)

166 Scottish Government (2020). EU Exit: habitats regulations in Scotland [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

167 ibid

168 ibid

169 Scottish Government (2013) 2020 Challenge for Scotland’s Biodiversity: A Strategy for the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity in Scotland [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

170 Convention on Biological Diversity (2010) Aichi Biodiversity Targets [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

171 European Commission (2011) The European Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

172 Scottish Government (2004) Scotland’s Biodiversity Strategy: It’s in Your Hands – A strategy for the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity in Scotland [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

173 Scottish Government (undated). Policy: Biodiversity [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

174 Scottish Government (2020) Scottish biodiversity strategy post-2020: statement of intent [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

175 Scottish Government (2011) A Strategy for Marine Nature Conservation in Scotland’s Seas [online] (accessed 06/07/2022)

176 ibid

177 Scottish Government (2020). Scottish biodiversity strategy post-2020: statement of intent [online] (accessed 06/07/2022)

178 Scottish Government (2022). Scottish Biodiversity Strategy 2022 [online] (accessed 08/07/2022)

179 Scottish Government (2022). Biodiversity strategy: consultation. (accessed 06/07/2022)

180 Nature Scot (undated). Scotland’s Biodiversity Strategy Consultation. (accessed 06/07/2022)

181 Scottish Government (2009) The Scottish Soil Framework [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

182 ibid

183 SNH (2013) The selection of Nature Conservation Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Scotland - assessment of geodiversity interests. Commissioned Report No. 633 [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

184 UKMMAS (undated) Introduction to UK Marine Strategy [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

185 Defra (2019) Marine Strategy Part One: UK updated assessment and Good Environmental Status October 2019 [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

186 ibid

187 UKMMAS (undated) Introduction to UK Marine Strategy [online] (accessed 12/10/2022)

188 Defra (2019) Marine Strategy Part One: UK updated assessment and Good Environmental Status October 2019 [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

189 UNFCCC (2016) The Paris Agreement [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

190 European Commission (2016) Paris Agreement [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

191 ibid

192 Climate Change (Emissions Reduction Targets) (Scotland) Act 2019 [online] (accessed 25/07/2024)

193 Scottish Government (2021). Climate Change: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

194 Scottish Government (2020). Securing a green recovery on a path to net zero: climate change plan 2018–2032 – update [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

195 Marine (Scotland) Act 2010, asp 5 [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

196 Scottish Government (2015) Scotland's National Marine Plan [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

197 Scottish Government (2019). Climate Ready Scotland: climate change adaptation programme 2019-2024 [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

198 UN Climate Change Conference UK 2021 (undated) COP26 [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

199 UN Climate Change Conference UK 2021 (undated) COP26: The Glasgow Climate Pact [online] (accessed 07/07/2022)

200 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

201 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

202 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

203 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Asso-ciation. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

204 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270

205 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.S. & Amos, S.C. (eds), 1996. A study on the effects of fish (Crustacea/Mollusc) traps on benthic habitats and species. King’s Lynn. Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee. Report to the European Commission Directorate General XIV, Study Contract No.94/076.

206 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.A., Kinnear, J.A.M., Amos, C.S., Chapman, C.J., Clark, R.A., Bunker, F. & Munro, C., 2001. Effects of Crustacean traps on benthic fauna. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 58, 11-20.

207 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

208 ibid

209 ibid

210 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

211 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

212 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

213 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

214 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

215 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

216 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

217 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

218 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

219 Tuck, I. D., Hall, S. J., Robertson, M. R., Armstrong, E. & Basford, D. J., 1998. Effects of physical trawling disturbance in a previously unfished sheltered Scottish sea loch. Ma-rine Ecology Progress Series, 162, 227-242.

220 Ball, B.J., Fox, G. & Munday, B.W., 2000. Long-and short-term consequences of a Nephrops trawl fishery on the benthos and environment of the Irish Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1315–1320.

221 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

222 ibid

223 Hughes, D. J., 1998. Sea-pens and burrowing megafauna (vol. III): an overview of dynamics and sensitivity characteristics for conservation management of Marine SACs. Scottish Association of Marine Science (UK Marine SAC’s Project), 105 pp.

224 Tuck, I. D., Hall, S. J., Robertson, M. R., Armstrong, E. & Basford, D. J., 1998. Effects of physical trawling disturbance in a previously unfished sheltered Scottish sea loch. Ma-rine Ecology Progress Series, 162, 227-242.

225 Ball, B.J., Fox, G. & Munday, B.W., 2000. Long-and short-term consequences of a Nephrops trawl fishery on the benthos and environment of the Irish Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1315–1320.

226 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

227 Hughes, D. J., 1998. Sea-pens and burrowing megafauna (vol. III): an overview of dynamics and sensitivity characteristics for conservation management of Marine SACs. Scottish Association of Marine Science (UK Marine SAC’s Project), 105 pp.

228 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

229 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

230 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

231 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

232 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

233 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

234 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

235 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

236 ^[236] Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

237 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

238 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

239 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

240 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

241 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

242 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

243 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

244 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

245 Ball, B.J., Fox, G. & Munday, B.W., 2000. Long-and short-term consequences of a Nephrops trawl fishery on the benthos and environment of the Irish Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1315–1320.

246 Tuck, I. D., Hall, S. J., Robertson, M. R., Armstrong, E. & Basford, D. J., 1998. Effects of physical trawling disturbance in a previously unfished sheltered Scottish sea loch. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 162, 227-242.

247 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

248 ibid

249 Witbaard, R. & Bergman, M.J.N., 2003. The distribution and population structure of the bivalve Arctica islandica L. in the North Sea: what possible factors are involved? Journal of Sea Research, 50(1), 11-25.

250 Klein, R. & Witbaard, R., 1993. The appearance of scars on the shell of Arctica islandica L. (mollusca, Bivalvia) and their relation to bottom trawl fishery. NIOZ-rapport, 1993(12). Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee: Den Burg. 28 pp

251 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

252 Camphuysen, K., Scott, B. & Wanless, S., 2011. Distribution and foraging interactions of seabirds and marine mammals in the North Sea: a metapopulation analysis. Available online from: .

253 Witbaard, R. & Bergman, M.J.N., 2003. The distribution and population structure of the bivalve Arctica islandica L. in the North Sea: what possible factors are involved? Journal of Sea Research, 50(1), 11-25.

254 Sabatini, M. & Pizzolla, P., 2008. Arctica islandica. Icelandic cyprine. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Subprogramme [on¬line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available online from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/speciesinformation.php?speciesID=2588

255 Ridgway, I.D. & Richardson, C.A., 2011. Arctica islandica: the longest lived non colonial animal known to science. Reviews of Fish Biology and Fisheries, 21, 297-310.

256 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

257 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

258 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

259 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.A., Kinnear, J.A.M., Amos, C.S., Chapman, C.J., Clark, R.A., Bunker, F. & Munro, C., 2001. Effects of Crustacean traps on benthic fauna. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 58, 11-20.

260 ibid

261 Ball, B.J., Fox, G. & Munday, B.W., 2000. Long-and short-term consequences of a Nephrops trawl fishery on the benthos and environment of the Irish Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1315–1320.

262 Tuck, I. D., Hall, S. J., Robertson, M. R., Armstrong, E. & Basford, D. J., 1998. Effects of physical trawling disturbance in a previously unfished sheltered Scottish sea loch. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 162, 227-242.

263 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

264 ibid

265 Witbaard, R. & Bergman, M.J.N., 2003. The distribution and population structure of the bivalve Arctica islandica L. in the North Sea: what possible factors are involved? Journal of Sea Research, 50(1), 11-25.

266 Klein, R. & Witbaard, R., 1993. The appearance of scars on the shell of Arctica islandica L. (mollusca, Bivalvia) and their relation to bottom trawl fishery. NIOZ-rapport, 1993(12). Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee: Den Burg. 28 pp

267 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

268 Camphuysen, K., Scott, B. & Wanless, S., 2011. Distribution and foraging interactions of seabirds and marine mammals in the North Sea: a metapopulation analysis. Available online from: .

269 Witbaard, R. & Bergman, M.J.N., 2003. The distribution and population structure of the bivalve Arctica islandica L. in the North Sea: what possible factors are involved? Journal of Sea Research, 50(1), 11-25.

270 Sabatini, M. & Pizzolla, P., 2008. Arctica islandica. Icelandic cyprine. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Subprogramme [on¬line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available online from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/speciesinformation.php?speciesID=2588

271 Ridgway, I.D. & Richardson, C.A., 2011. Arctica islandica: the longest lived non colonial animal known to science. Reviews of Fish Biology and Fisheries, 21, 297-310.

272 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

273 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

274 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

275 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.A., Kinnear, J.A.M., Amos, C.S., Chapman, C.J., Clark, R.A., Bunker, F. & Munro, C., 2001. Effects of Crustacean traps on benthic fauna. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 58, 11-20.

276 ibid

277 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

278 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

279 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

280 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

281 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

282 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

283 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

284 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

285 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

286 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

287 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

288 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

289 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

290 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

291 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

292 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

293 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

294 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

295 Bett, B.J., 2000. Benthic ecology of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel. Section 4.3.1 in Environmental Surveys of the Seafloor of the UK Atlantic Margin, Atlantic Frontier Environmental Network [CD-ROM]. ISBN 09538399-0-7. Available from Geotek Limited, Daventry, UK.

296 Bett, B.J., 2001. UK Atlantic Margin Environmental Survey: introduction and overview of bathyal benthic ecology. Journal of Continental Shelf Research, 21, 917–956.

297 Narayanaswamy, B.E., Bett, B.J. & Gage, J.D., 2005. Ecology of bathyal polychaete fauna at an Arctic–Atlantic boundary (Faroe–Shetland Channel, North-east Atlantic). Marine Biological Research, 1, 20–32.

298 Narayanaswamy, B.E., Bett, B.J. & Hughes, D.J., 2010. Deep-water macrofaunal diversity in the Faroe-Shetland region (NE Atlantic): a margin subject to an unusual thermal regime. Marine Ecology, 31, 237-246.

299 Klein, R. & Witbaard, R., 1993. The appearance of scars on the shell of Arctica islandica L. (mollusca, Bivalvia) and their relation to bottom trawl fishery. NIOZ-rapport, 1993(12). Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee: Den Burg. 28 pp

300 itbaard, R. & Bergman, M.J.N., 2003. The distribution and population structure of the bivalve Arctica islandica L. in the North Sea: what possible factors are involved? Journal of Sea Research, 50(1), 11-25.

301 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

302 Rumohr, H. & Krost, P., 1991. Experimental evidence of damage to benthos by bottom trawling with special reference to Arctica islandica. Meeresforschung, 33, 340-345.

303 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

304 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

305 ICES, 2007. Report of the Working Group on Deep-water Ecology (WGDEC). 26-28 February 2007, Chapter 7 Soft corals in the North Atlantic. ICES Advisory Committee on Ecosystems. ICES CM 2007/ACE: 01, 35-49.

306 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

307 OSPAR, 2010b. Background Document for Coral gardens. Biodiversity Series. Publication Number: 486/2010.

308 ibid

309 ibid

310 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

311 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.S. & Amos, S.C. (eds), 1996. A study on the effects of fish (Crustacea/Mollusc) traps on benthic habitats and species. King’s Lynn. Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee. Report to the European Commission Directorate General XIV, Study Contract No.94/076.

312 ibid

313 Klein, R. & Witbaard, R., 1993. The appearance of scars on the shell of Arctica islandica L. (mollusca, Bivalvia) and their relation to bottom trawl fishery. NIOZ-rapport, 1993(12). Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee: Den Burg. 28 pp

314 itbaard, R. & Bergman, M.J.N., 2003. The distribution and population structure of the bivalve Arctica islandica L. in the North Sea: what possible factors are involved? Journal of Sea Research, 50(1), 11-25.

315 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

316 Rumohr, H. & Krost, P., 1991. Experimental evidence of damage to benthos by bottom trawling with special reference to Arctica islandica. Meeresforschung, 33, 340-345.

317 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

318 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

319 ICES, 2007. Report of the Working Group on Deep-water Ecology (WGDEC). 26-28 February 2007, Chapter 7 Soft corals in the North Atlantic. ICES Advisory Committee on Ecosystems. ICES CM 2007/ACE: 01, 35-49.

320 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

321 OSPAR, 2010b. Background Document for Coral gardens. Biodiversity Series. Publication Number: 486/2010.

322 ibid

323 ibid

324 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

325 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.S. & Amos, S.C. (eds), 1996. A study on the effects of fish (Crustacea/Mollusc) traps on benthic habitats and species. King’s Lynn. Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee. Report to the European Commission Directorate General XIV, Study Contract No.94/076.

326 ibid

327 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

328 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

329 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

330 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

331 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

332 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

333 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

334 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

335 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

336 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

337 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

338 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

339 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

340 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

341 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

342 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

343 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

344 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

345 Daunt, F., Wanless, S., Greenstreet, S.P.R., Jensen, H., Hamer, K.C. & Harris, M,P., 2008. The impact of the sandeel fishery on seabird food consumption, distribution and productivity in the northwestern North Sea. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 65, 362-81.

346 Camphuysen, K., Scott, B. & Wanless, S., 2011. Distribution and foraging interactions of seabirds and marine mammals in the North Sea: a metapopulation analysis. Available online from: .

347 McConnell, B.J., Fedak, M. A., Lovell, P., & Hammond, P.S., 1999. Movements and foraging areas of grey seals in the North Sea. Journal of Applied Ecology, 36, 573– 90.

348 Jones, E., McConnell, B., Sparling, C., & Matthiopoulos, J., 2013. Grey and harbour seal density maps. Report from the Sea Mammal Research Unit to Marine Scotland. Available online from: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/0041/00416981.pdf

349 Prime, J. H. & Hammond, P. S., 1990. The diet of grey seals from the southwestern North Sea assessed from analyses of hard parts found in faeces. Journal of Applied Ecology, 27, 435-447.

350 McConnell, B.J., Fedak, M. A., Lovell, P., & Hammond, P.S., 1999. Movements and foraging areas of grey seals in the North Sea. Journal of Applied Ecology, 36, 573– 90.

351 ibid

352 Lockwood, S.L, & Lucassen, W., 1984. The recruitment of juvenile plaice (Plueronectes platessa) to their parent spawning stock. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 41, 268-75.

353 Scott, B.E., Sharples, J., Ross, O.N., Wang, J., Pierce, G.J. & Camphuysen, C.J., 2010. Sub-surface hotspots in shallow seas: fine-scale limited locations of top predator foraging habitat indicated by tidal mixing and sub-surface chlorophyll. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 408, 207-26.

354 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

355 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

356 Dernie, K.M., Kaiser, M.J. & Warwick, R.M., 2003. Recovery rates of benthic communities following physical disturbance. Journal of Animal Ecology, 72, 1043– 1056.

357 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

358 Kaiser M.J., Clarke, K.R., Hinz, H., Austen, M.C.V., Somerfield P.J. & Karakassis, I., 2006. Global analysis of response and recovery of benthic biota to fishing. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 311, 1–14.

359 Collie, J.S., Hermsen, J.M., Valentine, P.C. & Almeida, F.P., 2005. Effects of fishing on gravel habitats: assessment and recovery of benthic megafauna on Georges Bank. American Fisheries Society Symposium. American Fisheries Society. 325pp.

360 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

361 Klein, R. & Witbaard, R., 1993. The appearance of scars on the shell of Arctica islandica L. (mollusca, Bivalvia) and their relation to bottom trawl fishery. NIOZ-rapport, 1993(12). Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee: Den Burg. 28 pp

362 Witbaard, R. & Bergman, M.J.N., 2003. The distribution and population structure of the bivalve Arctica islandica L. in the North Sea: what possible factors are involved? Journal of Sea Research, 50(1), 11-25.

363 Craeymeersch, J.A., Piet, G.J., Rijnsdorp, A.D. & Buijs, J., 2000. Distribution of macrofauna in relation to the micro-distribution of trawling effort. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds). Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell Science, Oxford, p 187–197

364 ibid

365 Daunt, F., Wanless, S., Greenstreet, S.P.R., Jensen, H., Hamer, K.C. & Harris, M,P., 2008. The impact of the sandeel fishery on seabird food consumption, distribution and productivity in the northwestern North Sea. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 65, 362-81.

366 Camphuysen, K., Scott, B. & Wanless, S., 2011. Distribution and foraging interactions of seabirds and marine mammals in the North Sea: a metapopulation analysis. Available online from: .

367 McConnell, B.J., Fedak, M. A., Lovell, P., & Hammond, P.S., 1999. Movements and foraging areas of grey seals in the North Sea. Journal of Applied Ecology, 36, 573– 90.

368 Jones, E., McConnell, B., Sparling, C., & Matthiopoulos, J., 2013. Grey and harbour seal density maps. Report from the Sea Mammal Research Unit to Marine Scotland. Available online from: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/0041/00416981.pdf

369 Prime, J. H. & Hammond, P. S., 1990. The diet of grey seals from the southwestern North Sea assessed from analyses of hard parts found in faeces. Journal of Applied Ecology, 27, 435-447.

370 McConnell, B.J., Fedak, M. A., Lovell, P., & Hammond, P.S., 1999. Movements and foraging areas of grey seals in the North Sea. Journal of Applied Ecology, 36, 573– 90.

371 ibid

372 Lockwood, S.L, & Lucassen, W., 1984. The recruitment of juvenile plaice (Plueronectes platessa) to their parent spawning stock. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 41, 268-75.

373 Scott, B.E., Sharples, J., Ross, O.N., Wang, J., Pierce, G.J. & Camphuysen, C.J., 2010. Sub-surface hotspots in shallow seas: fine-scale limited locations of top predator foraging habitat indicated by tidal mixing and sub-surface chlorophyll. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 408, 207-26.

374 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

375 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

376 Dernie, K.M., Kaiser, M.J. & Warwick, R.M., 2003. Recovery rates of benthic communities following physical disturbance. Journal of Animal Ecology, 72, 1043– 1056.

377 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

378 Kaiser M.J., Clarke, K.R., Hinz, H., Austen, M.C.V., Somerfield P.J. & Karakassis, I., 2006. Global analysis of response and recovery of benthic biota to fishing. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 311, 1–14.

379 Collie, J.S., Hermsen, J.M., Valentine, P.C. & Almeida, F.P., 2005. Effects of fishing on gravel habitats: assessment and recovery of benthic megafauna on Georges Bank. American Fisheries Society Symposium. American Fisheries Society. 325pp.

380 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

381 Klein, R. & Witbaard, R., 1993. The appearance of scars on the shell of Arctica islandica L. (mollusca, Bivalvia) and their relation to bottom trawl fishery. NIOZ-rapport, 1993(12). Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee: Den Burg. 28 pp

382 Witbaard, R. & Bergman, M.J.N., 2003. The distribution and population structure of the bivalve Arctica islandica L. in the North Sea: what possible factors are involved? Journal of Sea Research, 50(1), 11-25.

383 Craeymeersch, J.A., Piet, G.J., Rijnsdorp, A.D. & Buijs, J., 2000. Distribution of macrofauna in relation to the micro-distribution of trawling effort. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds). Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell Science, Oxford, p 187–197

384 ibid

385 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

386 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

387 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

388 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

389 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

390 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

391 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

392 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

393 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd

394 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

395 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

396 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

397 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

398 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

399 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

400 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

401 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

402Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd

403 OSPAR, 2010b. Background Document for Coral gardens. Biodiversity Series. Publication Number: 486/2010.

404 FAO, 2009. International guidelines for the Management of Deep-sea Fisheries in the High Seas. http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0816t/i0816t00.htm Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

405 ibid

406 ICES, 2007. Report of the Working Group on Deep-water Ecology (WGDEC). 26-28 February 2007, Chapter 7 Soft corals in the North Atlantic. ICES Advisory Committee on Ecosystems. ICES CM 2007/ACE: 01, 35-49.

407 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

408 ICES, 2007. Report of the Working Group on Deep-water Ecology (WGDEC). 26-28 February 2007, Chapter 7 Soft corals in the North Atlantic. ICES Advisory Committee on Ecosystems. ICES CM 2007/ACE: 01, 35-49.

409 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

410 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

411 Kaiser M.J., Clarke, K.R., Hinz, H., Austen, M.C.V., Somerfield P.J. & Karakassis, I., 2006. Global analysis of response and recovery of benthic biota to fishing. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 311, 1–14.

412 Collie, J.S., Hermsen, J.M., Valentine, P.C. & Almeida, F.P., 2005. Effects of fishing on gravel habitats: assessment and recovery of benthic megafauna on Georges Bank. American Fisheries Society Symposium. American Fisheries Society. 325pp.

413 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

414 Eleftheriou, A. & Robertson, M. R., 1992. The effects of experimental scallop dredging on the fauna and physical environment of a shallow sandy community. Netherlands Journal of Sea research, 30, 289-299

415 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

416 ibid

417 Pham, C. K., Diogo, H., Menezes, G., Porteiro, F., Braga-Henriques, A., Vandeperre, F., Morato, T. 2014. Deep-water longline fishing has reduced impact on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems. Scientific Reports, 4, 6p.

418 OSPAR, 2010b. Background Document for Coral gardens. Biodiversity Series. Publication Number: 486/2010.

419 FAO, 2009. International guidelines for the Management of Deep-sea Fisheries in the High Seas. http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0816t/i0816t00.htm Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

420 ibid

421 ICES, 2007. Report of the Working Group on Deep-water Ecology (WGDEC). 26-28 February 2007, Chapter 7 Soft corals in the North Atlantic. ICES Advisory Committee on Ecosystems. ICES CM 2007/ACE: 01, 35-49.

422 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

423 ICES, 2007. Report of the Working Group on Deep-water Ecology (WGDEC). 26-28 February 2007, Chapter 7 Soft corals in the North Atlantic. ICES Advisory Committee on Ecosystems. ICES CM 2007/ACE: 01, 35-49.

424 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

425 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

426 Kaiser M.J., Clarke, K.R., Hinz, H., Austen, M.C.V., Somerfield P.J. & Karakassis, I., 2006. Global analysis of response and recovery of benthic biota to fishing. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 311, 1–14.

427 Collie, J.S., Hermsen, J.M., Valentine, P.C. & Almeida, F.P., 2005. Effects of fishing on gravel habitats: assessment and recovery of benthic megafauna on Georges Bank. American Fisheries Society Symposium. American Fisheries Society. 325pp.

428 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

429 Eleftheriou, A. & Robertson, M. R., 1992. The effects of experimental scallop dredging on the fauna and physical environment of a shallow sandy community. Netherlands Journal of Sea research, 30, 289-299

430 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

431 ibid

432 Pham, C. K., Diogo, H., Menezes, G., Porteiro, F., Braga-Henriques, A., Vandeperre, F., Morato, T. 2014. Deep-water longline fishing has reduced impact on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems. Scientific Reports, 4, 6p.

433 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

434 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

435 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

436 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

437 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

438 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

439 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

440 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

441 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

442 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

443 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

444 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

445 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

446 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

447 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

448 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

449 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

450 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

451 Klein, R. & Witbaard, R., 1993. The appearance of scars on the shell of Arctica islandica L. (mollusca, Bivalvia) and their relation to bottom trawl fishery. NIOZ-rapport, 1993(12). Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee: Den Burg. 28 pp

452 Witbaard, R. & Klein, R., 1994. Long-term trends on the effects of the southern North Sea beam trawl fishery on the bivalve mollusc Arctica islandica L. (Mollusca, bivalvia). ICES Journal of Marine Science, 51, 99-105.

453 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

454 Rumohr, H. & Krost, P., 1991. Experimental evidence of damage to benthos by bottom trawling with special reference to Arctica islandica. Meeresforschung, 33, 340-345.

455 Eigaard, O.R., Bastardie, F., Breen, M., Dinesen, G.E., Hintzen, N.T., Laffargue, P., Mortensen, L.O., Nielsen, J.R., Nillsson, H.C., O'Neill, F.G., Polet, H., Reid, D.G., Sala, A., Skold, M., Sorensen, T.K,. Tully, O., Zengin, M., Rijnsdorp, A.D. 2016. Estimating seabed pressure from demersal trawls, seines, and dredges based on gear design and dimensions. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 73, Supplement 1,1, 27-43.

456 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Sciberras, M., Szostek, C.L,. Hughes, K.M., Ellis, N., Rijnsdrop, A.D., McConnaughey, R.A., Mazor, T., Hilborn, R., Collie, J.S., Pitcher, R., Amoroso., R.O., Parma, A.M., Suuronen, P., Kaiser, M.J. 2017. Gsobal analysis of depletion and recovery of seabed biota after bottom trawling disturbance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114, 31, 8301-8306.

457 Suuronen, P., Chopin, F., Glass, C., Løkkeborg, S., Matsushita, Y., Queirolo, D. and Rihan, D., 2012. Low impact and fuel efficient fishing—Looking beyond the horizon. Fisheries research, 119, pp.135-146.

458 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

459 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.A., Kinnear, J.A.M., Amos, C.S., Chapman, C.J., Clark, R.A., Bunker, F. & Munro, C., 2001. Effects of Crustacean traps on benthic fauna. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 58, 11-20.

460 Klein, R. & Witbaard, R., 1993. The appearance of scars on the shell of Arctica islandica L. (mollusca, Bivalvia) and their relation to bottom trawl fishery. NIOZ-rapport, 1993(12). Nederlands Instituut voor Onderzoek der Zee: Den Burg. 28 pp

461 Witbaard, R. & Klein, R., 1994. Long-term trends on the effects of the southern North Sea beamtrawl fishery on the bivalve mollusc Arctica islandica L. (Mollusca, bivalvia). ICES Journal of Marine Science, 51, 99-105.

462 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

463 Rumohr, H. & Krost, P., 1991. Experimental evidence of damage to benthos by bottom trawling with special reference to Arctica islandica. Meeresforschung, 33, 340-345.

464 Eigaard, O.R., Bastardie, F., Breen, M., Dinesen, G.E., Hintzen, N.T., Laffargue, P., Mortensen, L.O., Nielsen, J.R., Nillsson, H.C., O'Neill, F.G., Polet, H., Reid, D.G., Sala, A., Skold, M., Sorensen, T.K,. Tully, O., Zengin, M., Rijnsdorp, A.D. 2016. Estimating seabed pressure from demersal trawls, seines, and dredges based on gear design and dimensions. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 73, Supplement 1,1, 27-43.

465 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Sciberras, M., Szostek, C.L,. Hughes, K.M., Ellis, N., Rijnsdrop, A.D., McConnaughey, R.A., Mazor, T., Hilborn, R., Collie, J.S., Pitcher, R., Amoroso., R.O., Parma, A.M., Suuronen, P., Kaiser, M.J. 2017. Gsobal analysis of depletion and recovery of seabed biota after bottom trawling disturbance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114, 31, 8301-8306.

466 Suuronen, P., Chopin, F., Glass, C., Løkkeborg, S., Matsushita, Y., Queirolo, D. and Rihan, D., 2012. Low impact and fuel efficient fishing—Looking beyond the horizon. Fisheries research, 119, pp.135-146.

467 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

468 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.A., Kinnear, J.A.M., Amos, C.S., Chapman, C.J., Clark, R.A., Bunker, F. & Munro, C., 2001. Effects of Crustacean traps on benthic fauna. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 58, 11-20.

469 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

470 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

471 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

472 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

473 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

474 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

475 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

476 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

477 ibid

478 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

479 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

480 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

481 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

482 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

483 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

484 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

485 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

486 ibid

487 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

488 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

489 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

490 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

491 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

492 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.A., Kinnear, J.A.M., Amos, C.S., Chapman, C.J., Clark, R.A., Bunker, F. & Munro, C., 2001. Effects of Crustacean traps on benthic fauna. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 58, 11-20.

493 ibid

494 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

495 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

496 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

497 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

498 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

499 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.A., Kinnear, J.A.M., Amos, C.S., Chapman, C.J., Clark, R.A., Bunker, F. & Munro, C., 2001. Effects of Crustacean traps on benthic fauna. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 58, 11-20.

500 ibid

501 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

502 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

503 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

504 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

505 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

506 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

507 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

508 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

509 ibid

510 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

511 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

512 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

513 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

514 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

515 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

516 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

517 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

518 ibid

519 Austen, M.C., Warwick, R.M. & Ryan, K.P., 1993. Astomonema southwardorum sp. nov., a gutless nematode dominant in a methane seep area in the North Sea. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 73, 627-634.

520 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

521 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

522 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

523 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

524 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.S. & Amos, S.C. (eds), 1996. A study on the effects of fish (Crustacea/Mollusc) traps on benthic habitats and species. King’s Lynn. Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee. Report to the European Commission Directorate General XIV, Study Contract No.94/076.

525 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

526 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

527 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

528 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

529 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

530 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

531 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

532 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

533 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

534 ibid

535 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

536 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

537 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

538 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

539 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

540 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

541 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

542 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

543 ibid

544 Clark, M.R., Tittensor, D.P., 2010. An index to assess the risk to stony corals from bottom trawling on seamounts. Mar. Ecol. 31, 200–211.

545 Clark, M.R., Rowden, A.A., Schlacher, T., Williams, A., Consalvey, M., Stocks, K.I., Rogers, A.D., O’Hara, T.D., White, M., Shank, T.M., Hall-Spencer, J.M., 2010. The Ecology of Seamounts: Structure, Function, and Human Impacts. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 2, 253–278. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-120308-081109

546 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

547 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

548 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

549 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

550 Clark, M.R., Tittensor, D.P., 2010. An index to assess the risk to stony corals from bottom trawling on seamounts. Mar. Ecol. 31, 200–211.

551 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

552 Fosså, J.H., Mortensen, P.B., Furevik, D.M., 2002. The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia, 471, 1-12.

553 Koslow J.A., Gowlett-Holmes K., Lowry J.K., O'Hara T., Poore G.C.B. & Williams A., 2001. Seamount benthic macrofauna off southern Tasmania: community structure and impacts of trawling. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 213, 111-125.

554 Larsson, A. I. & Purser, A., 2011. Sedimentation on the cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa: Cleaning efficiency from natural sediments and drill cuttings. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(6), 1159-1168.

555 Pham, C. K., Diogo, H., Menezes, G., Porteiro, F., Braga-Henriques, A., Vandeperre, F., Morato, T. 2014. Deep-water longline fishing has reduced impact on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems. Scientific Reports, 4, 6p.

556 Grehan, A., Unnithan, V., Wheeler, A., Monteys, X., Beck, T., Wilson, M., Guinan, J., Foubert, A., Klages, M. & Thiede, J., 2004. Evidence of major fisheries impact on cold-water corals in the deep waters off the Porcupine Bank, west coast of Ireland: are interim management measures required? ICES CM 2004/AA: 07.

557 ibid

558 Sampaio, I., Braga-Henriques, A., Pham, C., Ocana, O., De Matos, V., Morato, T., & Porteiro, F. M. 2012. Cold-water corals landed by bottom longline fisheries in the Azores (north-eastern Atlantic). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 92: 1547–1555.

559 ibid

560 ibid

561 ibid

562 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

563 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

564 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

565 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

566 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

567 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

568 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

569 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

570 ibid

571 Ball, B.J., Fox, G. & Munday, B.W., 2000. Long-and short-term consequences of a Nephrops trawl fishery on the benthos and environment of the Irish Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1315–1320.

572 Tuck, I. D., Hall, S. J., Robertson, M. R., Armstrong, E. & Basford, D. J., 1998. Effects of physical trawling disturbance in a previously unfished sheltered Scottish sea loch. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 162, 227-242.

573 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

574 ibid

575 Eleftheriou, A. & Robertson, M. R., 1992. The effects of experimental scallop dredging on the fauna and physical environment of a shallow sandy community. Netherlands Journal of Sea research, 30, 289-299

576 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

577 ibid

578 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

579 Kaiser, M.J. and Spencer, B.E., 1996. The effects of beam-trawl disturbance on infaunal communities in different habitats. Journal of Animal Ecology, pp.348-358.

580 Clark, M.R., Tittensor, D.P., 2010. An index to assess the risk to stony corals from bottom trawling on seamounts. Mar. Ecol. 31, 200–211.

581 Clark, M.R., Rowden, A.A., Schlacher, T., Williams, A., Consalvey, M., Stocks, K.I., Rogers, A.D., O’Hara, T.D., White, M., Shank, T.M., Hall-Spencer, J.M., 2010. The Ecology of Seamounts: Structure, Function, and Human Impacts. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 2, 253–278. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-120308-081109

582 ibid

583 Jennings, S. and Kaiser, M.J., 1998. The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. Advances in marine biology, 34, pp.201-352.

584 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

585 ibid

586 ibid

587 Muñoz, P.D., Murillo, F.J., Sayago-Gil, M., Serrano, A., Laporta, M., Otero, I. and Gómez, C., 2011. Effects of deep-sea bottom longlining on the Hatton Bank fish communities and benthic ecosystem, north-east Atlantic. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 91(4), pp.939-952.

588 Mortensen, P.B. and Buhl-Mortensen, L., 2005. Deep-water corals and their habitats in The Gully, a submarine canyon off Atlantic Canada. In Cold-water corals and ecosystems (pp. 247-277). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

589 ibid

590 OSPAR, 2010b. Background Document for Coral gardens. Biodiversity Series. Publication Number: 486/2010.

591 Pham, C. K., Diogo, H., Menezes, G., Porteiro, F., Braga-Henriques, A., Vandeperre, F., Morato, T. 2014. Deep-water longline fishing has reduced impact on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems. Scientific Reports, 4, 6p.

592 Ball, B.J., Fox, G. & Munday, B.W., 2000. Long-and short-term consequences of a Nephrops trawl fishery on the benthos and environment of the Irish Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1315–1320.

593 Tuck, I. D., Hall, S. J., Robertson, M. R., Armstrong, E. & Basford, D. J., 1998. Effects of physical trawling disturbance in a previously unfished sheltered Scottish sea loch. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 162, 227-242.

594 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

595 ibid

596 Eleftheriou, A. & Robertson, M. R., 1992. The effects of experimental scallop dredging on the fauna and physical environment of a shallow sandy community. Netherlands Journal of Sea research, 30, 289-299

597 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

598 ibid

599 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

600 Kaiser, M.J. and Spencer, B.E., 1996. The effects of beam-trawl disturbance on infaunal communities in different habitats. Journal of Animal Ecology, pp.348-358.

601 Clark, M.R., Tittensor, D.P., 2010. An index to assess the risk to stony corals from bottom trawling on seamounts. Mar. Ecol. 31, 200–211.

602 Clark, M.R., Rowden, A.A., Schlacher, T., Williams, A., Consalvey, M., Stocks, K.I., Rogers, A.D., O’Hara, T.D., White, M., Shank, T.M., Hall-Spencer, J.M., 2010. The Ecology of Seamounts: Structure, Function, and Human Impacts. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 2, 253–278. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-120308-081109

603 ibid

604 Jennings, S. and Kaiser, M.J., 1998. The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. Advances in marine biology, 34, pp.201-352.

605 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

606 ibid

607 ibid

608 Muñoz, P.D., Murillo, F.J., Sayago-Gil, M., Serrano, A., Laporta, M., Otero, I. and Gómez, C., 2011. Effects of deep-sea bottom longlining on the Hatton Bank fish communities and benthic ecosystem, north-east Atlantic. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 91(4), pp.939-952.

609 Mortensen, P.B. and Buhl-Mortensen, L., 2005. Deep-water corals and their habitats in The Gully, a submarine canyon off Atlantic Canada. In Cold-water corals and ecosystems (pp. 247-277). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

610 ibid

611 OSPAR, 2010b. Background Document for Coral gardens. Biodiversity Series. Publication Number: 486/2010.

612 Pham, C. K., Diogo, H., Menezes, G., Porteiro, F., Braga-Henriques, A., Vandeperre, F., Morato, T. 2014. Deep-water longline fishing has reduced impact on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems. Scientific Reports, 4, 6p.

613 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

614 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

615 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

616 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

617 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

618 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

619 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

620 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

621 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

622 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

623 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

624 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

625 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

626 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

627 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

628 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

629 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

630 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

631 Fosså, J.H., Mortensen, P.B., Furevik, D.M., 2002. The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia, 471, 1-12.

632 Koslow J.A., Gowlett-Holmes K., Lowry J.K., O'Hara T., Poore G.C.B. & Williams A., 2001. Seamount benthic macrofauna off southern Tasmania: community structure and impacts of trawling. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 213, 111-125.

633 ibid

634 Larsson, A. I. & Purser, A., 2011. Sedimentation on the cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa: Cleaning efficiency from natural sediments and drill cuttings. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(6), 1159-1168.

635 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

636 Pham, C. K., Diogo, H., Menezes, G., Porteiro, F., Braga-Henriques, A., Vandeperre, F., Morato, T. 2014. Deep-water longline fishing has reduced impact on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems. Scientific Reports, 4, 6p.

637 Grehan, A., Unnithan, V., Wheeler, A., Monteys, X., Beck, T., Wilson, M., Guinan, J., Foubert, A., Klages, M. & Thiede, J., 2004. Evidence of major fisheries impact on cold-water corals in the deep waters off the Porcupine Bank, west coast of Ireland: are interim management measures required? ICES CM 2004/AA: 07.

638 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

639 Sampaio, I., Braga-Henriques, A., Pham, C., Ocana, O., De Matos, V., Morato, T., & Porteiro, F. M. 2012. Cold-water corals landed by bottom longline fisheries in the Azores (north-eastern Atlantic). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 92: 1547–1555.

640 ibid

641 ibid

642 ibid

643 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

644 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

645 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

646 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

647 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

648 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

649 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

650 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

651 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

652 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

653 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

654 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

655 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

656 Fosså, J.H., Mortensen, P.B., Furevik, D.M., 2002. The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia, 471, 1-12.

657 Koslow J.A., Gowlett-Holmes K., Lowry J.K., O'Hara T., Poore G.C.B. & Williams A., 2001. Seamount benthic macrofauna off southern Tasmania: community structure and impacts of trawling. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 213, 111-125.

658 Fosså, J.H., Mortensen, P.B., Furevik, D.M., 2002. The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia, 471, 1-12.

659 Larsson, A. I. & Purser, A., 2011. Sedimentation on the cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa: Cleaning efficiency from natural sediments and drill cuttings. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(6), 1159-1168.

660 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

661 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

662 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

663 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

664 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

665 Fosså, J.H., Mortensen, P.B., Furevik, D.M., 2002. The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia, 471, 1-12.

666 Koslow J.A., Gowlett-Holmes K., Lowry J.K., O'Hara T., Poore G.C.B. & Williams A., 2001. Seamount benthic macrofauna off southern Tasmania: community structure and impacts of trawling. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 213, 111-125.

667 Fosså, J.H., Mortensen, P.B., Furevik, D.M., 2002. The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia, 471, 1-12.

668 Larsson, A. I. & Purser, A., 2011. Sedimentation on the cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa: Cleaning efficiency from natural sediments and drill cuttings. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(6), 1159-1168.

669 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

670 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

671 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

672 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

673 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

674 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

675 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

676 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

677 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

678 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

679 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

680 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

681 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

682 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

683 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

684 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

685 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

686 Ball, B.J., Fox, G. & Munday, B.W., 2000. Long-and short-term consequences of a Nephrops trawl fishery on the benthos and environment of the Irish Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1315–1320.

687 Tuck, I. D., Hall, S. J., Robertson, M. R., Armstrong, E. & Basford, D. J., 1998. Effects of physical trawling disturbance in a previously unfished sheltered Scottish sea loch. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 162, 227-242.

688 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

689 ibid

690 ibid

691 Kaiser, M.J. and Spencer, B.E., 1996. The effects of beam-trawl disturbance on infaunal communities in different habitats. Journal of Animal Ecology, pp.348-358.

692 Collie, J.S., Hermsen, J.M., Valentine, P.C. & Almeida, F.P., 2005. Effects of fishing on gravel habitats: assessment and recovery of benthic megafauna on Georges Bank. American Fisheries Society Symposium. American Fisheries Society. 325pp.

693 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

694 Eleftheriou, A. & Robertson, M. R., 1992. The effects of experimental scallop dredging on the fauna and physical environment of a shallow sandy community. Netherlands Journal of Sea research, 30, 289-299

695 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

696 ibid

697 ibid

698 Kaiser M.J., Clarke, K.R., Hinz, H., Austen, M.C.V., Somerfield P.J. & Karakassis, I., 2006. Global analysis of response and recovery of benthic biota to fishing. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 311, 1–14.

699 Ball, B.J., Fox, G. & Munday, B.W., 2000. Long-and short-term consequences of a Nephrops trawl fishery on the benthos and environment of the Irish Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1315–1320.

700 Tuck, I. D., Hall, S. J., Robertson, M. R., Armstrong, E. & Basford, D. J., 1998. Effects of physical trawling disturbance in a previously unfished sheltered Scottish sea loch. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 162, 227-242.

701 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J., Queirós, A.M., Duplisea, D.E. & Piet, G.J., 2006. Cumulative impacts of seabed trawl disturbance on benthic biomass, production, and species richness in different habitats. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63(4), 721-736.

702 ibid

703 ibid

704 Kaiser, M.J. and Spencer, B.E., 1996. The effects of beam-trawl disturbance on infaunal communities in different habitats. Journal of Animal Ecology, pp.348-358.

705 Collie, J.S., Hermsen, J.M., Valentine, P.C. & Almeida, F.P., 2005. Effects of fishing on gravel habitats: assessment and recovery of benthic megafauna on Georges Bank. American Fisheries Society Symposium. American Fisheries Society. 325pp.

706 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

707 Eleftheriou, A. & Robertson, M. R., 1992. The effects of experimental scallop dredging on the fauna and physical environment of a shallow sandy community. Netherlands Journal of Sea research, 30, 289-299

708 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

709 ibid

710 ibid

711 Kaiser M.J., Clarke, K.R., Hinz, H., Austen, M.C.V., Somerfield P.J. & Karakassis, I., 2006. Global analysis of response and recovery of benthic biota to fishing. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 311, 1–14.

712 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

713 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

714 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

715 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

716 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

717 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

718 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

719 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

720 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

721 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

722 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

723 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

724 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

725 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

726 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

727 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

728 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

729 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

730 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

731 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

732 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

733 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

734 Fosså, J.H., Mortensen, P.B., Furevik, D.M., 2002. The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia, 471, 1-12.

735 Koslow J.A., Gowlett-Holmes K., Lowry J.K., O'Hara T., Poore G.C.B. & Williams A., 2001. Seamount benthic macrofauna off southern Tasmania: community structure and impacts of trawling. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 213, 111-125.

736 Fosså, J.H., Mortensen, P.B., Furevik, D.M., 2002. The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia, 471, 1-12.

737 Larsson, A. I. & Purser, A., 2011. Sedimentation on the cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa: Cleaning efficiency from natural sediments and drill cuttings. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(6), 1159-1168.

738 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

739 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.S. & Amos, S.C. (eds), 1996. A study on the effects of fish (Crustacea/Mollusc) traps on benthic habitats and species. King’s Lynn. Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee. Report to the European Commission Directorate General XIV, Study Contract No.94/076.

740 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

741 ibid

742 ibid

743 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

744 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

745 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

746 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

747 Fosså, J.H., Mortensen, P.B., Furevik, D.M., 2002. The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia, 471, 1-12.

748 Koslow J.A., Gowlett-Holmes K., Lowry J.K., O'Hara T., Poore G.C.B. & Williams A., 2001. Seamount benthic macrofauna off southern Tasmania: community structure and impacts of trawling. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 213, 111-125.

749 Fosså, J.H., Mortensen, P.B., Furevik, D.M., 2002. The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia, 471, 1-12.

750 Larsson, A. I. & Purser, A., 2011. Sedimentation on the cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa: Cleaning efficiency from natural sediments and drill cuttings. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(6), 1159-1168.

751 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

752 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.S. & Amos, S.C. (eds), 1996. A study on the effects of fish (Crustacea/Mollusc) traps on benthic habitats and species. King’s Lynn. Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee. Report to the European Commission Directorate General XIV, Study Contract No.94/076.

753 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

754 ibid

755 ibid

756 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

757 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

758 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

759 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

760 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

761 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

762 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

763 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

764 ^[764] Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

765 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

766 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

767 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

768 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

769 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

770 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

771 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

772 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

773 ^[773] Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

774 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

775 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

776 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

777 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

778 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

779 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

780 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

781 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

782 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

783 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

784 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

785 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

786 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

787 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

788 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

789 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

790 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

791 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

792 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

793 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

794 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

795 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

796 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

797 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

798 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

799 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

800 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

801 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

802 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

803 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

804 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

805 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

806 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

807 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

808 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

809 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

810 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

811 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

812 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

813 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

814 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

815 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

816 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

817 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

818 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

819 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

820 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

821 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

822 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

823 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

824 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

825 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

826 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

827 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

828 Clark, M.R., Tittensor, D.P., 2010. An index to assess the risk to stony corals from bottom trawling on seamounts. Mar. Ecol. 31, 200–211.

829 Clark, M.R., Rowden, A.A., Schlacher, T., Williams, A., Consalvey, M., Stocks, K.I., Rogers, A.D., O’Hara, T.D., White, M., Shank, T.M., Hall-Spencer, J.M., 2010. The Ecology of Seamounts: Structure, Function, and Human Impacts. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 2, 253–278. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-120308-081109

830 Kaiser, M.J. and Spencer, B.E., 1996. The effects of beam-trawl disturbance on infaunal communities in different habitats. Journal of Animal Ecology, pp.348-358

831 Jennings, S. and Kaiser, M.J., 1998. The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. Advances in marine biology, 34, pp.201-352.

832 Clark, M.R., Tittensor, D.P., 2010. An index to assess the risk to stony corals from bottom trawling on seamounts. Mar. Ecol. 31, 200–211.

833 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

834 Fosså, J.H., Mortensen, P.B., Furevik, D.M., 2002. The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts. Hydrobiologia, 471, 1-12.

835 ICES, 2007. Report of the Working Group on Deep-water Ecology (WGDEC). 26-28 February 2007, Chapter 7 Soft corals in the North Atlantic. ICES Advisory Committee on Ecosystems. ICES CM 2007/ACE: 01, 35-49.

836 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

837 OSPAR, 2010a. Background Document for Deep-sea sponge aggregations. Publication number: 491/2010.

838 ICES, 2007. Report of the Working Group on Deep-water Ecology (WGDEC). 26-28 February 2007, Chapter 7 Soft corals in the North Atlantic. ICES Advisory Committee on Ecosystems. ICES CM 2007/ACE: 01, 35-49.

839 ICES, 2010. Report of the ICES Advisory Committee, 2010. ICES Advice, 2010. Books 1 -11. 1,928 pp.

840 ibid

841 Kaiser, M.J. and Spencer, B.E., 1996. The effects of beam-trawl disturbance on infaunal communities in different habitats. Journal of Animal Ecology, pp.348-358.

842 Collie, J.S., Hermsen, J.M., Valentine, P.C. & Almeida, F.P., 2005. Effects of fishing on gravel habitats: assessment and recovery of benthic megafauna on Georges Bank. American Fisheries Society Symposium. American Fisheries Society. 325pp.

843 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

844 Eleftheriou, A. & Robertson, M. R., 1992. The effects of experimental scallop dredging on the fauna and physical environment of a shallow sandy community. Netherlands Journal of Sea research, 30, 289-299

845 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

846 ibid

847 ibid

848 Kaiser, M.J. and Spencer, B.E., 1996. The effects of beam-trawl disturbance on infaunal communities in different habitats. Journal of Animal Ecology, pp.348-358.

849 Muñoz, P.D., Murillo, F.J., Sayago-Gil, M., Serrano, A., Laporta, M., Otero, I. and Gómez, C., 2011. Effects of deep-sea bottom longlining on the Hatton Bank fish communities and benthic ecosystem, north-east Atlantic. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 91(4), pp.939-952.

850 Muñoz, R. D. & Sayago-Gil, M., 2011. An overview of cold-water coral protection on the high seas: The Hatton bank (NE Atlantic) – A case study. Marine Policy, 35, 615–622.

851 OSPAR, 2010a. Background Document for Deep-sea sponge aggregations. Publication number: 491/2010.

852 Pham, C. K., Diogo, H., Menezes, G., Porteiro, F., Braga-Henriques, A., Vandeperre, F., Morato, T. 2014. Deep-water longline fishing has reduced impact on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems. Scientific Reports, 4, 6p.

853 Sampaio, I., Braga-Henriques, A., Pham, C., Ocana, O., De Matos, V., Morato, T., & Porteiro, F. M. 2012. Cold-water corals landed by bottom longline fisheries in the Azores (north-eastern Atlantic). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 92: 1547–1555.

854 Ewing, G. P., and Kilpatrick, R. 2014. Estimating the gear footprint of demersal trawl and longline fishing gears used in the Heard Island and McDonald Islands fisheries. In Demersal fishing interactions with marine benthos in the Australian EEZ of the Southern Ocean: An assessment of the vulnerability of benthic habitats to impact by demersal gears Final Report FRDC Project 2006/042. Ed. by D. C. Welsford, G. P. Ewing, A. J. Constable, T. Hibberd, and R. Kilpatrick. The Department of the Environment, Australian AntArctic Division and the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia, 265 pp.

855 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

856 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

857 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

858 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

859 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

860 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

861 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

862 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

863 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

864 ibid

865 Kaiser, M.J. and Spencer, B.E., 1996. The effects of beam-trawl disturbance on infaunal communities in different habitats. Journal of Animal Ecology, pp.348-358.

866 Collie, J.S., Hermsen, J.M., Valentine, P.C. & Almeida, F.P., 2005. Effects of fishing on gravel habitats: assessment and recovery of benthic megafauna on Georges Bank. American Fisheries Society Symposium. American Fisheries Society. 325pp.

867 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

868 Eleftheriou, A. & Robertson, M. R., 1992. The effects of experimental scallop dredging on the fauna and physical environment of a shallow sandy community. Netherlands Journal of Sea research, 30, 289-299

869 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

870 ibid

871 Eigaard, O.R., Bastardie, F., Breen, M., Dinesen, G.E., Hintzen, N.T., Laffargue, P., Mortensen, L.O., Nielsen, J.R., Nillsson, H.C., O'Neill, F.G., Polet, H., Reid, D.G., Sala, A., Skold, M., Sorensen, T.K,. Tully, O., Zengin, M., Rijnsdorp, A.D. 2016. Estimating seabed pressure from demersal trawls, seines, and dredges based on gear design and dimensions. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 73, Supplement 1,1, 27-43.

872 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Sciberras, M., Szostek, C.L,. Hughes, K.M., Ellis, N., Rijnsdrop, A.D., McConnaughey, R.A., Mazor, T., Hilborn, R., Collie, J.S., Pitcher, R., Amoroso., R.O., Parma, A.M., Suuronen, P., Kaiser, M.J. 2017. Gsobal analysis of depletion and recovery of seabed biota after bottom trawling disturbance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114, 31, 8301-8306.

873 Suuronen, P., Chopin, F., Glass, C., Løkkeborg, S., Matsushita, Y., Queirolo, D. and Rihan, D., 2012. Low impact and fuel efficient fishing—Looking beyond the horizon. Fisheries research, 119, pp.135-146.

874 Eigaard, O.R., Bastardie, F., Breen, M., Dinesen, G.E., Hintzen, N.T., Laffargue, P., Mortensen, L.O., Nielsen, J.R., Nillsson, H.C., O'Neill, F.G., Polet, H., Reid, D.G., Sala, A., Skold, M., Sorensen, T.K,. Tully, O., Zengin, M., Rijnsdorp, A.D. 2016. Estimating seabed pressure from demersal trawls, seines, and dredges based on gear design and dimensions. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 73, Supplement 1,1, 27-43.

875 ibid

876 Kaiser, M.J. and Spencer, B.E., 1996. The effects of beam-trawl disturbance on infaunal communities in different habitats. Journal of Animal Ecology, pp.348-358.

877 Collie, J.S., Hermsen, J.M., Valentine, P.C. & Almeida, F.P., 2005. Effects of fishing on gravel habitats: assessment and recovery of benthic megafauna on Georges Bank. American Fisheries Society Symposium. American Fisheries Society. 325pp.

878 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

879 Eleftheriou, A. & Robertson, M. R., 1992. The effects of experimental scallop dredging on the fauna and physical environment of a shallow sandy community. Netherlands Journal of Sea research, 30, 289-299

880 Bergmann, M.J.N. & Van Santbrink, J.W., 2000. Fishing mortality and populations of megafauna in sandy sediments. In: Kaiser M.J. & de Groot S.J. (eds.) Effects of fishing on non-target species and habitats. Blackwell, Oxford.

881 ibid

882 Eigaard, O.R., Bastardie, F., Breen, M., Dinesen, G.E., Hintzen, N.T., Laffargue, P., Mortensen, L.O., Nielsen, J.R., Nillsson, H.C., O'Neill, F.G., Polet, H., Reid, D.G., Sala, A., Skold, M., Sorensen, T.K,. Tully, O., Zengin, M., Rijnsdorp, A.D. 2016. Estimating seabed pressure from demersal trawls, seines, and dredges based on gear design and dimensions. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 73, Supplement 1,1, 27-43.

883 Hiddink, J.G., Jennings, S., Sciberras, M., Szostek, C.L,. Hughes, K.M., Ellis, N., Rijnsdrop, A.D., McConnaughey, R.A., Mazor, T., Hilborn, R., Collie, J.S., Pitcher, R., Amoroso., R.O., Parma, A.M., Suuronen, P., Kaiser, M.J. 2017. Gsobal analysis of depletion and recovery of seabed biota after bottom trawling disturbance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114, 31, 8301-8306.

884 Suuronen, P., Chopin, F., Glass, C., Løkkeborg, S., Matsushita, Y., Queirolo, D. and Rihan, D., 2012. Low impact and fuel efficient fishing—Looking beyond the horizon. Fisheries research, 119, pp.135-146.

885 Eigaard, O.R., Bastardie, F., Breen, M., Dinesen, G.E., Hintzen, N.T., Laffargue, P., Mortensen, L.O., Nielsen, J.R., Nillsson, H.C., O'Neill, F.G., Polet, H., Reid, D.G., Sala, A., Skold, M., Sorensen, T.K,. Tully, O., Zengin, M., Rijnsdorp, A.D. 2016. Estimating seabed pressure from demersal trawls, seines, and dredges based on gear design and dimensions. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 73, Supplement 1,1, 27-43.

886 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

887 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

888 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

889 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

890 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

891 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

892 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

893 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

894 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

895 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

896 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

897 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

898 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

899 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

900 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

901 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

902 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

903 Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

904 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

905 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

906 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

907 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

908 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.S. & Amos, S.C. (eds), 1996. A study on the effects of fish (Crustacea/Mollusc) traps on benthic habitats and species. King’s Lynn. Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee. Report to the European Commission Directorate General XIV, Study Contract No.94/076.

909 ibid

910 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

911 ibid

912 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

913 Freese, L., Auster, P.J., Heifetz, J. & Wing, B.L., 1999. Effects of trawling on seafloor habitat and associated invertebrate taxa in the Gulf of Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 182, 119–126.

914 Løkkeborg, S., 2005. Impacts of trawling and scallop dredging on benthic habitats and communities. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 472. Rome, FAO. 58pp.

915 McConnaughey, R.A., K. Mier, & Dew. C.B., 2000. An examination of chronic trawling effects on soft-bottom benthos of the eastern Bering Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 1377-1388.

916 Sewell, J., & Hiscock, K., 2005. Effects of fishing within UK European Marine Sites: Guidance for nature conservation agencies. Report to the Countryside Council for Wales [now Natural Resources Wales], English Nature [now Natural England], Scottish Natural Heritage and the Joint Nature Conservation Committee from the Marine Biological Association. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association. CCW Contract FC 73-03-214A.

917 Eno, N.C., MacDonald, D.S. & Amos, S.C. (eds), 1996. A study on the effects of fish (Crustacea/Mollusc) traps on benthic habitats and species. King’s Lynn. Eastern Sea Fisheries Joint Committee. Report to the European Commission Directorate General XIV, Study Contract No.94/076.

918 ibid

919 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

920 ibid

921 Foden, J., Rogers, S.I. & Jones, A.P., 2010. Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction-towards a cumulative impact assessment. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411, 259–270.

922 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

923 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

924 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

925 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

926 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

927 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

928 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

929 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

930 ^[930] Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.

931 Buxton CD, Hartmann K, Kearney R, Gardner C (2014) When is spill-over from marine reserves likely to benefit fisheries? PLOS ONE 9: e107032.

932 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

933 Kerwath, S.E., Winker, H., Gotz, A. & Attwood, C.G., 2013, ‘Marine protected area improves yield without disadvantaging fishers’, Nature Communications 4(2347), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3347

934 Schratzberger, M., Neville, S., Painting, S., Weston, K. and Paltriguera, L., 2019. Ecological and socio-economic effects of highly protected marine areas (HPMAs) in temperate waters. Frontiers in Marine Science, p.749.

935 Starr RM, Wendt DE, Barnes CL, Marks CI and others (2015) Variation in responses of fishes across multiple reserves within a network of marine protected areas in temperate waters. PLoS ONE 10: e0118502

936 Hillborn, R. (2017) Are MPAs effective? ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 75, Issue 2, P1160-1162

937 Lenihan, H.S., Gallagher, J.P., Peters, J.R., Stier, A.C., Hofmeister, J.K. and Reed, D.C., 2021. Evidence that spillover from Marine Protected Areas benefits the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) fishery in southern California. Scientific Reports, 11(1), pp.1-9.

938 Pantzar, M., Russi, D., Hooper, T., and Haines, R. (2018). Study on the Economic Benefits of Marine Protected Areas. Report to the European Commission.

939 ^[939] Coull K, Johnstone R, Rogers S (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters, 1st edn. UKOOA Ltd.