Impacts of Open Pen Freshwater Aquaculture Production on Wild Fisheries
Impacts of Open Pen Freshwater Aquaculture Production on Wild Fisheries. The study described in this report was commissioned by Marine Scotland, against a backdrop of concerns about the possible impacts of freshwater aquaculture on the health of wild sal
Footnotes
1. David Crawley, Chair of the Scottish Mixed Stock Salmon Fisheries Working Group.
2. http://www.ices.dk/committe/acom/comwork/report/2011/Special%20Requests/AdviceNASCOIntroduction.pdf
3. Scottish Fish Farm Production Survey Report, 2010. Marine Scotland Science
4. See, for example, Scottish Salmon Producer Organisation
Industry Research Report at:
http://www.scottishsalmon.co.uk/userFiles/886/FINAL_SSPO_Industry_Survey_Report.April_2012.pdf
5. http://www.ices.dk/committe/acom/comwork/report/2011/Special%20Requests/AdviceNASCOIntroduction.pdf
6. Economic Impact of Game and Coarse Angling in Scotland, Scottish Executive, 2004
7. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2011/11/17152846/4
8. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/marine/science/Publications/publicationslatest/farmedfish/apbs
9. An introductory Guide to Valuing Ecosystem Services, DEFRA, 2007.
10. http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/natural/uknea/
11. http://marinemanagement.org.uk/fisheries/funding/documents/fcf-recirculation.pdf
13. http://www.fishupdate.com/news/fullstory.php/aid/8725
15. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2010/03/31154416/0. See Section 6.4.
16. modified from Figure 6 by Richard Corner in Bergheim et al., 2009
17. modified from http://www.vbnc.com/eis/chap11/chap11.htm
18. Christie, M.R., Marine, M.L, French, R.A. and Brlouin, M.S. (2012) Genetic adaptation to captivity can occur in a single generation. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences - early release online
19. Source: Gilbey et al. GENIMPACT
20. http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/direct-and-indirect-interactions-15650000
21. Klemetsen A., Amundsen P.A., Dempson J.B., Jonsson B., Jonsson N, O'Connell M.F. and Mortensen, E. (2003). Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L., brown trout Salmo trutta L. and Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (L.): a review of aspects of their life histories. Ecology of Freshwater Fish 12:1-59.
22. Walker, A. F. (2004). An investigation of escaped rainbow trout in the upper River Earn and Loch Earn during 2002/03. Scottish Fisheries Information Pamphlet 24.
23. Jordan, W.A., Fleming, I.A. and Garant, D. (2007). Mating System and Social Structure. In Atlantic Salmon: Genetics, Conservation and Management. (Verspoor, E., Stradmeyer, L. & Nielsen, J. eds.). Chapter 6: pp 167-194. Blackwell, Oxford.
24. Ferguson, A., Fleming, I.A., Hindar, K., Skaala, Ø., McGinnity, P., Cross, T. and Prodöhl, P. (2007). Farm escapes. In Atlantic Salmon: Genetics, Conservation and Management. (Verspoor, E., Stradmeyer, L. & Nielsen, J. eds.). Chapter 12: pp 357-398. Blackwell, Oxford.
25. Garant, D., Fleming, I.A., Einum, S., Bernatchez, L., 2003. Alternative male life-history tactics as potential vehicles for speeding introgression of farm salmon traits into wild populations. Ecology Letters 6, 541-549.
26. Thorstad, E.B., Fleming, I.A., McGinnity, P., Soto, D., Wennevik, V. and Whoriskey, F. 2008. Incidence and impacts of escaped farmed Atlantic salmon Salmo salar in nature. NINA Special Report 36. 110 pp.
27. Verspoor, E. & J. Hammar. (1991). Introgressive hybridization in fishes: the biochemical evidence. Journal of Fish Biology 39(Supplement A): 309‑334.
28. García de Leaniz, C., Fleming, I.A., Einum, S., Verspoor, E., Consuegra, S., Jordan, W.C., Aubin-Horth, N., Lajus, D. L., Villanueva, B., Ferguson, A., Youngson, A.F., & Quinn, T.P. (2007) Local Adaptation, Chapter 7, In The Atlantic Salmon: Genetics, Conservation & Management (Verspoor, E., Stradmeyer, L & Nielsen, J.L., eds). Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. pp 195-236. Houde et al. 2010
29. McGinnity, P., P. Prodo¨hl, A. Ferguson, R. Hynes, N. O ` Maoileidigh, N. Baker, D. Cotter et al. 2003. Fitness reduction and potential extinction of wild populations of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, as a result of interactions with escaped farm salmon. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 270:2443-2450.
30. Gilbey, J. and Verspoor, E. (submitted). Individual-based modelling of the demographic impacts of genetic introgression of farmed Atlantic salmon into wild populations. Aquaculture Environment Interactions.
31. Lorang, M. S., J. A. Stanford, F. R. Hauer, and J. H. Jourdonnais. 1993. Dissipative and reflective beaches in a large lake and the physical effects of lake level regulation. Ocean and Coastal Management 19: 263-287.
32. Kahler, Tom, Martin Grassley, and David Beauchamp. 2000. A summary of the effects of bulkheads, piers, and other artificial structures and shorezone development on ESA-listed salmonids in lakes. Final report, 13 July 2000. Prepared for the City of Bellevue, Washington by The Watershed Company, Kirkland, Washington, and Washington Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Washington, School of Fisheries, Seattle.
33. http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/648.1.pdf
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35. Alanärä, A. and Brännäs, E. (1993). A test of the individual feeding activity and food size preference in rainbow trout using demand feeders. Aquaculture International 1, 47-54.
36. Gibson, R.J. and Keenleyside M.H.A. (1966). Responses to Light of Young Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) and Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 1966, 23:(7) 1007-1024.
37. Fernö, A., Huseb, I. Jon-Erik Juellc, J-E. and smund Bjordalc, Å. (1995) Vertical distribution of Atlantic salmon (Salmo solar L.) in net pens: trade-off between surface light avoidance and food attraction. Aquaculture 132: 285-296.
38. Noble, C., Mizusawa, K., Suzuki, K. and Tabata, M. (2007). The effect of differing self-feeding regimes on the growth, behaviour and fin damage of rainbow trout held in groups. Aquaculture 264: 214-222.
39. Mazur, M.M. and Beauchamp, D.A. (2003). A comparison of Visual Prey Detection Among Species of Piscivorous Salmonids: Effects of Light and Low Turbidities Environmental Biology of Fishes 67: 397-405.
40. D. C. Schutz, T. G. Northcote, T.G. (1972). An Experimental Study of Feeding Behavior and Interaction of Coastal Cutthroat Trout (Salmo clarki clarki) and Dolly Varden (Salvelinus malma). Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 1972, 29:(5) 555-565,
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42. Ackefors, H., and M. Enell. 1990. Discharge of nutrients from Swedish fish farming into adjacent sea areas. Ambio 19: 28-35.
43. Karakassis, I., Tsapakis, M. and Hatziyanni, E. (1998). Seasonal variability in sediment profiles beneath fish farm cages in the Mediterranean. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 162: 243-252.
44. Karakassis, I., Hatziyami, E., Tsapakis, M. and Plaiti, W. (1999). Benthic recovery following cessation of fish farming: a series of successes and catastrophes. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 184: 205-218.
45. Dominguez, M.L., Calero, L.G., Martin, V.M.J. and Robaina, R.L. 2001. A comparative study of sediments under a marine cage farm at Gran Canaria Island (Spain). Aquaculture, 192: 225-231
46. Pawar, V., Matsuda, O., Yamamoto, T., Hashimoto, T. and Rajendran, N. 2001. Spatial and temporal variations of sediment quality in and around fish cage farms: A case study of aquaculture in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan. Fisheries Science, 67: 619-627.
47. Pawar, V., Matsuda, O. and Fujisaka, N. 2002. Relationship between feed input and sediment quality of the fish cage farms. Fisheries Science, 68: 894-903.
48. Pearson, H.T. and Black, K.D. 2001. The environmental impacts of marine fish cage culture. In: K.D. Black (Ed.), Environmental Impacts of Aquaculture, Sheffield Academic Press, UK: 32-51.
49. Carrol, L.M., Cochrane, S., Fieler, R., Velvin, R. and White, P. 2003. Organic enrichment of sediments from salmon farming in Norway: environmental factors, management practices and monitoring techniques. Aquaculture, 226: 165-180.
50. Cornel, G.E. and Whoriskey, F.G. (1993). The effects of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cage culture on the water quality, zooplankton, benthos and sediments of Lac du Passage, Quebec. Aquaculture 109: 101-117
51. Kelly, L.A. 1992. Dissolved reactive phosphorus release from sediments beneath a freshwater cage aquaculture development in West Scotland. Hydrobiologia 235-236: 569-572.
52. Troell, M., and H. Berg. 1997. Cage fish farming in the tropical Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe: Impact and biogeochemical changes in sediment. Aquaculture. Research 28: 527-544.
53. Temporetti, F.P., Alanso, F.M., Baffico G., Diaz M.M., Lopez, W., Pedrozo, L.F. and Vigliano, H.P. (2001). Trophic state, fish community and intensive production of salmonids in Alicura Reservoir (Patagonia, Argentina). Lakes & Reservoirs: Research and Management, 6: 259-267.
54. Phillips MJ, Beveridge MCM, Ross LG (1985) The environmental-impact of salmonid cage culture on inland fisheries - present status and future-trends. Journal of Fish Biology 27:123-137.
55. Carss DN. 1990. Concentrations of wild and escaped fishes immediately adjacent to fish farm cages. Aquaculture 90(1): 29-40.
56. Cornel, G.E. and Whoriskey, F.G. (1993). The effects of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cage culture on the water quality, zooplankton, benthos and sediments of Lac du Passage, Quebec. Aquaculture 109: 101-117
57. Elberizon, I.R. and Kelly, L.A. (1998). Empirical measurements of parameters critical to modelling benthic impacts of freshwater salmonid cage aquaculture. Aquaculture Research 29:669-677.
58. Pavlov, D. S. and Savvaitova, K. A. (2008).On the problem of ratio of anadromy and residence in salmonids (Salmonidae). Journal of Ichthyology 48: 778-791
59. Findlay, D.L., Podemski, C.L. and Kasian, S. E.M. (2009). Aquaculture impacts on the algal and bacterial communities in a small boreal forest lake. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 66: 1936-1948.
60. Rooney R. C. and Podemski C. L. (2009). Effects of an experimental rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farm on invertebrate community composition. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 66:1949-1964
61. http://www.sarf.org.uk/cms-assets/documents/28925-497850.sarf055---final-report.pdf
62. ( http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/enviro/aquaculture/sok-edc/volume3/scott-eng.htm)
63. ( http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/003/AC278E/AC278E00.htm)
64. Beveridge, M.C.M and M.J. Phillips Environmental Impact of Tropical Inland Aquaculture. P.213-236. In R.S.V. Pullin, H. Rosenthal, and J.L. Maclean (eds). Environment and aquaculture in developing countries. ICLARM Conf. Proc. 31, 359pp.)
65. ( http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/enviro/aquaculture/sok-edc/volume3/scott-eng.htm)
66. Bergh, Ø. 2007. The dual myths of the healthy wild fish and the unhealthy farmed fish. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 75:169-164.
67. http://www.revistaaquatic.com/DIPNET/docs/doc.asp?id=48
68. Bakke, T.A., Harris, P.D. and Cable, J. (2002). Host specificity dynamics: observations on gyrodactylid monogeneans. International Journal of Parasitology 32:281-308.
69. Johnsen, B.O. and Jensen, A.J (1991) The Gyrodactylus history in Norway. Aquaculture 98:289-302.
70. Benmansour, A., Basurco, B., Monnier, A.F., Vende, P., Winton, J.R. and de Kinkelin P (1997). Sequence variation of the glycoprotein gene identifies three distinct lineages within field isolates of viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus, a fish rhabdovirus. Journal of General Virology 78:2837-2846
71. Ebert, D. and Bull, J.J. (2008) The evolution and expression of virulence. In: Stearns SC, Koella JC, editors. Evolution in health and disease. 2 nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2008. p. 153-67
72. Meinilä, M., Kuusela, J., Zietara, M.S. and Lumme, J. 2004. Initial steps of speciation by eographic isolation and host switch in salmonid pathogen Gyrodactylus salaris Monogenea: Gyrodactylidae - International Journal for Parasitology, 2004 Mar 29, 34(4):515 - 526.
73. Coutant CC. What is "Normative" for Fish Pathogens? A Perspective on the Controversy over Interactions between Wild and Cultured Fish. Journal of Aquatic Animal Health. 1998; 10: 101-6.
74. Grimholt, U., S. Larsen, R. Nordmo, P. Midtlyng, S. Kjoeglum, A. Storset, S. Saebø et al. 2003. MHC polymorphism and disease resistance in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar); facing pathogens with single expressed major histocompatibility class I and class II loci. Immunogenetics 55:210-219.
75. Coughlan, J., P. McGinnity, B. O'Farrell, E. Dillane, O. Diserud, E. de Eyto, K. Farrell et al. 2006. Temporal variation in an immune response gene ( MHC I) in anadromous Salmo trutta in an Irish river before and during aquaculture activities. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63:1248-1255.
76. de Eyto, E., McGinnity, P., Huisman, J., Coughlan, J., Consuegra, S., Farrell, K., O'Toole, C., Tufto, J., Megens, H.-J., Jordan, W., Cross, T. and Stet, R. J. M. (2011). Varying disease-mediated selection at different life-history stages of Atlantic salmon in fresh water. Evolutionary Applications, 4: 749-762.
77. Walker, A. F. (2007), Stream spawning of Arctic charr in Scotland. Ecology of Freshwater Fish, 16: 47-53.
78. http://www.nasco.int/pdf/far_habitat/HabitatFAR_Scotland.pdf
79. Colin Adams from Maitland and Adams (in prep) Charr in Lochs of Scotland: An Assessment of Distribution
80. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 2007. Second Report by the UK under Article 17 on the implementation of the Habitats Directive from January 2001 to December 2006. JNCC, Peterborough
81. http://gateway.snh.gov.uk/sitelink/index.jsp
82. http://sres.management.dal.ca/Files/Tyedmers/LC_Impacts.pdf
83. See for example: Thorarensen and Farrell 2011 - http://people.landfood.ubc.ca/anthony.farrell/pubs/p307-Thorarensen_and_Farrell_2011.pdf
84. MSS Annual Survey 2010.
85. http://www.rspca.org.uk/freedomfood
86. http://www.soilassociation.org/whatisorganic/whatisorganic/oursymbolandstandards
87. http://www.sarf.org.uk/cms-assets/documents/28923-913107.sarf054---volume1.pdf
88. http://www.thecodeofgoodpractice.co.uk/publish
89. http://www.sarf.org.uk/cms-assets/documents/48448-527836.sarf073.pdf
90. Source: Nofima, http://www.nofima.no/marin/en/nyhet/2010/10/ipn-still-poses-a-challenge
92. http://www.fusionmarine.com/news_migdale_smolt.htm
93. In: The Atlantic salmon: genetics, conservation and management. By Eric Verspoor, Lee Stradmeyer, Jennifer L. Nielsen, Atlantic Salmon Trust
94. https://www.was.org/documents/MeetingPresentations/AA2011/AA2011_0385.pdf
95. http://www.thefishsite.com/forums/showthread.php?t=2007
96. http://www.britishtrout.co.uk/old-site/explain.htm
97. ( http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/marine/Fish-Shellfish/18364/18692/escapeStatistics)
98. Verspoor, E., Knox, D. and Marshall, S. (2009) Assessment of the Direct Genetic Impacts of Escaped Farm Salmon: a retrospective study of a wild Scottish stock. ICES CM2009/ Q:05.
99. Anonymous (2003) STATUS OF RAINBOW TROUT IN SCOTLAND: The Results from a Questionnaire Survey. Scottish Fisheries Information Pamphlet No. 23 2003
100. L.-H. Johansen, Jensen, I. Mikkelsen, H. Bjørn, P.-A. Jansen, P.A. and Bergh, Ø. (2011). Disease interaction and pathogens exchange between wild and farmed fish populations with special reference to Norway. Aquaculture 315: 167-186.
101. Murray, A.G., Munro, L.A., Wallace, I.S., Peeler, E.J., Thrush, M.A., 2011. Bacterial Kidney disease: an assessment of risk to Atlantic salmon from infection in trout farms and other sources. Scottish Marine and Freshwater Science Vol 2 (3). Marine Scotland Science, Aberdeen UK.
102. Gilbey, J. and Verspoor, E. (submitted). Individual-based modelling of the demographic impacts of genetic introgression of farmed Atlantic salmon into wild populations. Aquaculture Environment Interactions
103. Beveridge, M.C.M., 1984 Cage and pen fish farming. Carrying capacity models and environmental impact. FAO Fish.Tech.Pap., (255) : 131 p.
104. http://www.ewos.com/portal/wps/wcm/connect/EwosCom/com/frontpage/news/nasf+2012+wathne
105. Verspoor, E., Knox, D. and Marshall, S. (2009) Assessment of the Direct Genetic Impacts of Escaped Farm Salmon: a retrospective study of a wild Scottish stock. ICES CM2009/ Q:05.
106. Cross, T.F et al. (2007) Stocking and Ranching. Chapter 11, In The Atlantic Salmon: Genetics, Conservation & Management (Verspoor, E., Stradmeyer, L & Nielsen, J.L., eds). Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. pp 325-356.
107. Refer to MSS 2010 Annual Survey: current freshwater cage farms produce an average of 326 tonnes per annum.
108. http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/bib92977.pdf
109. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0044848608003438
110. http://ressources.ciheam.org/om/pdf/b30/00600661.pdf
111. See for example: http://www.seafoodchoices.org/seafoodsummit/documents/Summerfelt,Steve.pdf
112. http://www.cefas.co.uk/publications/finfishnews/FFN9.pdf
113. http://www.northernaquafarms.com/knowledgelibrary/NAF_PDF_Files/RAS_mininum_standards.pdf
114. See for example: http://www.fusionmarine.com/news_migdale_smolt.htm
115. http://www.publicarchitecture.co.uk/knowledge-base/files/indicative_building_costs.pdf
116. This is distinct from EBIT after adjustment for remaining biomass in the water and some non-farming issues such as values within contracts, restructuring costs, associated company profits and losses etc. This measure is a compliance requirement and is less relevant to profitability of the farming operation.
117. http://www.oanda.com/currency/average
118. The statistical authority in Norway use 12.5%, see http://www.ssb.no/akvakultur_en/about.html, while anecdotally some processors estimate more and less than this
119. http://www.aquamedia.info/pdfflip/FEAPPROD2011/PriceAndSpecie/index.html
120. FAO / Globefish European Fish Price Report, November 2011
121. http://www.sruc.ac.uk/info/120184/fish_farming/242/trout_for_the_table/4
122. http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-223807
123. Data source: MSS Annual Fish Farm Surveys
124. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/marine/Fish-Shellfish/international/ukaf/071010/UKAFPresentations
126. http://hugin.info/209/R/1507169/442027.pdf
127. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2011/03/21114728/0
128. http://www.fishupdate.com/news/fullstory.php/aid/17593
129. Pan Fish were at that time separate from Marine Harvest, but merged with Marine Harvest in 2006. The Pan Fish assets in Scotland, a range of sites around Loch Fyne, Mull, Skye and the Outer Hebrides, were then "spun off" from the merged grouping and became Lighthouse Caledonia.
130. http://fishpool.eu/index.aspx
131. Detailed Investigation of Range of Issues to Assess the Cost Structure and Competitiveness of the Salmon Growing Industry in Scotland, Report to Scottish Government CR / 2007 / 24, Poseidon Aquatic Resource Management, 2008
132. http://www.thecrownestate.co.uk/news-media/news/2011/aquaculture-rent-review-includes-funding-boost/
133. The term river system is inclusive of freshwater lochs and other bodies of standing freshwater
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