International Review of Custodial Models for Women: Key Messages for Scotland

References

All URLs correct at July 2015.

[i] Trend data - published by the ICPS - varies by country with data being available for most countries from 2000 to 2011; however, for some it is only available up to 2009.

[ii] However, the upward trend appears to be reversing with a drop in the female rate of imprisonment in Scotland from 8.5 in 2010 to 7.1 in 2015.

[iii] The World Prison Brief data in Table 1 is based on the number of female prisoners in the prison population on a single date in the year (or the annual average) and the percentage of the total prison population that female prisoners constituted on that day. The number of female prisoners fluctuates and so the above figures give an indication of the trend but the picture is inevitably incomplete. .

[iv] Latest figures (correct at 3 Jul 2015) reveal an (average daily) female prison population of 404 - 318 sentenced women, 85 women on remand (untried or awaiting sentence) and 1 women awaiting deportation (these figures include female young offenders).

[v] In 2011-12 there were 3,100 female receptions to prisons in Scotland of which 1,979 were for remand prisoners and 1,121 for sentenced prisons.

[vi] In 2012-13 the female reconviction rate was 0.43 compared to 0.53 for men.

[vii] Figures correct at July 2015 and include young female offenders.

[viii] Criminogenic needs are risk factors associated with reoffending including pro-criminal attitudes, poor family relationships, substance abuse, financial difficulties, unemployment, poor educational attainment, and poor cognitive skills.

[ix] A number of countries have set targets for female prison staff. For example, in Queensland, Australia, the target is set at 70%; a Northern Ireland report recommended the baseline be set at 80% (see Bartels & Gaffney, 2011 p6).

[x] This is defined in Norway as - punishment is the restriction of liberty; no other rights have been removed by the sentencing court. Therefore the sentenced offender has all the same rights as all other who live in Norway. No-one shall serve their sentence under stricter circumstances than necessary for the security in the community. Therefore offenders shall be placed in the lowest possible security regime. During the serving of a sentence, life inside will resemble life outside as much as possible. See: http://www.kriminalomsorgen.no/index.php?cat=265199

[xi] e.g. Bandyup Prison and Brisbane Women's Correctional Centre

[xii] HMP Askham Grange & HMP East Sutton Park, each holding approximately 100 women.

[xiii] See http://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/may/04/planned-closure-womens-prisons-stopped-legal-action-askham-grange-east-sutton-park

[xiv] See Justice Committee's Thirteenth Report Women Offenders: Follow Up. 17 March 2015 URL: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmjust/314/31402.htm [23]

[xv] HMP/YOIs Send and Low Newton, Foston Hall, New Hall, and Eastwood Park

[xvi] In this case Sweden, Norway and Finland

[xvii] In Scotland, new officers must also obtain SVQ Level 3 in Custodial Care within the first two years in post - see eSPS/The-Role-of-a-Prison-Officer.aspx">http://www.sps.gov.uk/Careers/OpportunitiesintheSPS/The-Role-of-a-Prison-Officer.aspx .

[xviii] In the last ten years (2002-2012) the number of women admitted to federal jurisdictions has increased by almost 70% (compared to 17% for men). See Public Safety Canada (2012) 2012 Corrections and Conditional Release Statistical Overview. URL: http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/2012-ccrs/index-eng.aspx#c4

[xix] The ICPS World Female Imprisonment List (2nd Ed.) quotes a total (federal and provincial) female prison population of nearly 2000 women in 2008/9, representing 5.1 % of the total prison population. See URL: http://www.prisonstudies.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/wfil_2nd_edition.pdf

[xx] Further analysis would be required to determine how this compares to other countries.

[xxi] In a cottage-style model women share houses (4-8 women). They have their own bedroom but share bathroom, kitchen and laundry facilities. They generally cook their own food and decide as a group on meal plans, cleaning and budgeting.

[xxii] See http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2014/03/9823/11 (Section 8.3)

[xxiii] Current estimates derive from self-completion prison surveys rather than official records (the latest survey in 2013 was based on 226 female respondents; a 60% response rate)

[xxiv] These figures derive from analysis of the SPS 2013 Prison Survey data (unpublished).

[xxv] Respondents to the survey reported being mothers to approximately 234 children (based on the number of women that reported having 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6+ children). The 400 figure was based on a total of 234 representing 60% of the prison population (the response rate to the survey was 60%).

[xxvi] 57% of both male and female prisoners reported that their families and friends faced difficulties visiting them (SPS, 2013)

[xxvii] It was not possible within the timeframes of this review to undertake a systematic search for this type of evidence.

[xxviii] However, it can be difficult to compare international measures of recidivism as countries define this in different ways and apply it to different populations over different time periods.

[1] Scottish Government (2012) Commission on Women Offenders. URL: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/0039/00391828.pdf

[2] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. ICPS: London. URL: http://www.prisonstudies.org/sites/prisonstudies.org/files/resources/downloads/20080501_womens_prisons_int_review__final_report_v_2.pdf

[3] Bartels, L. & Gaffney, A. (2011) Good practice in women's prisons: A literature review. AIC Reports: Technical and Background Paper 41, Australian Institute of Criminology. URL: http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/current%20series/tbp/41-60/tbp041.html

[4] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice: alternatives to imprisonment for women offenders. PRT: London URL: http://www.prisonreformtrust.org.uk/portals/0/documents/international%20good%20practice%20final.pdf

[5] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2014) Transforming Lives: reducing women's imprisonment. Prison Reform Trust: London. URL: http://www.prisonreformtrust.org.uk/Portals/0/Documents/transforming%20lives.pdf

[6] Convery, U. (2009) Addressing Offending by Women: A Literature Review. Northern Ireland Office Research and Statistical Series: Report No. 21[6]

[7] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[8] Subramanian, R. & Shames, A. (2013) Sentencing and Prison Practices in Germany and the Netherlands: Implications for the United States. Vera Institute of Justice: New York. URL: http://www.vera.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/european-american-prison-report-v3.pdf

[9] ICPS (2011) World Female Imprisonment List (second edition) URL: http://www.prisonstudies.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/wfil_2nd_edition.pdf

[10] See World Prison Brief (International Centre for Prison Studies) website. URL:

http://www.prisonstudies.org/about-wpb. Accessed 1 Aug 2015.

[11] Scottish Prison Service (SPS) (2014). SPS Annual Report 2013-2014. URL: http://www.sps.gov.uk/Corporate/Publications/Publication-2194.aspx.

[12] McIvor, G., Trotter, C., & Sheehan, R. (2009). Women, resettlement and desistence. Probation Journal vol. 56 no. 4 347-361

[13] Stancer, C. (2006). Finding somewhere to live: the resettlement needs of young women leaving prison. London: Women in Prison.

[14] Scottish Government (2014) Criminal Proceedings in Scotland Statistical Bulletin tables 2013-14. The Scottish Government. URL: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Crime-Justice/PubCriminalProceedings.

[15] McIvor, G., & Burman, M. (2011). Understanding the Drivers of Female Imprisonment in Scotland, Briefing 01/2011. The Scottish Centre for Crime & Justice Research.

[16] Cited in Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[17] Ministry of Justice (MOJ) (2014) Transforming Rehabilitation: a summary of the evidence on reducing reoffending. MOJ: London. URL: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/transforming-rehabilitation-a-summary-of-evidence-on-reducing-reoffending .

[18] Scottish Government. (2014). RECONVICTION RATES IN SCOTLAND: 2011-12 OFFENDER COHORT Scottish Government. URL: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/0045/00452150.pdf. (Table12).

[19] United Kingdom Home Office (2007). The Corston report: A report by Baroness Jean Corston of a review of women with particular vulnerabilities in the criminal justice system. URL: http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/docs/corstonreport-march-2007.pdf

[20] Scottish Government (2012) Commission on Women Offenders op cit.

[21] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[22] Scottish Government (2012) Commission on Women Offenders op cit.

[23] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[24] Ibid.

[25] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons op cit.

[26] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[27] Ibid. p21-22

[28] UN Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-Custodial Measures for Women Offenders (Bangkok Rules) July 2010: Rules 57 and 58.

[29] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice op cit.

[30] Lindstrom, P. & Leijonram, E. (2008) The Swedish prison system. Ministry of Justice. URL: http://www.internationalpenalandpenitentiaryfoundation.org/Site/documents/Stavern/29_Stavern_Report%20Sweden.pdf

[31]Swedish Government (2000) Principles for the Treatment of Women Sentenced to Imprisonment: A National Report from Sweden. Ministry of Justice, Sweden, URL: http://www.government.se/content/1/c6/02/07/19/2b28c4cc.pdf

[32] Convery, U. (2009) Addressing Offending by Women: A Literature Review. Citing Lobley & Smith (2000) Op cit..

[33] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit.

[34] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit.

[35] See Irish Prison Service (2014) Community Return: A Unique Opportunity. IPS: Ireland. URL: JELR/Community_Return_Study_Report_v3_9.pdf/Files/Community_Return_Study_Report_v3_9.pdf">http://www.justice.ie/en/JELR/Community_Return_Study_Report_v3_9.pdf/Files/Community_Return_Study_Report_v3_9.pdf

[36] See Andrew Coyle, former Director of ICPS opening remarks at a SCCCJ (Scottish Consortium for Crime and Criminal Justice) seminar 1 April 2015. URL: http://scottishjusticematters.com/women-affected-criminal-justice-system-scotland-next/

[37] Rogan (2013) Women in the criminal justice system. Presentation at an IPRT seminar 04/12/13. URL: http://www.iprt.ie/contents/2568

[38] Kates (2010) cited in PRT (2013) International Good Practice. op cit. p24

[39] Austin, J., Bloom, B. Donahue, T. (1992) Female Offenders in the Community: An Analysis of Innovative Programs. National Council on Crime and Delinquency, San Francisco, CA. URL: 1NCJRS.pdf">https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/142251NCJRS.pdf

[40] Gelsthorpe (2011) cited in PRT (2013) International Good Practice. op cit.

[41] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) Op cit..

[42] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit. p29

[43] Ibid. p49

[44] Correctional Service of Canada (2008) cited in Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit.

[45] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit. p28

[46] See URL: http://www.greenhope.org/about/kandake_house.shtml

[47] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit. p26

[48] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2014) Transforming Lives: reducing women's imprisonment. op cit.

[49] The Home Office (2007) The Corston Report. URL: http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/docs/corston-report-march-2007.pdf

[50] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2014) Transforming Lives: reducing women's imprisonment. op cit.

[51] Pratt, J. (2007) Scandinavian Exceptionalism in an Era of Penal Excess. Part 1: The Nature and Roots of Scandinavian Exceptionalism, British Journal of Criminology 48: 119-137.

[52] Walmsley, R. (2012) World Female Imprisonment List (second edition) International Centre for Prison Studies. URL: http://www.prisonstudies.org/sites/prisonstudies.org/files/resources/downloads/wfil_2nd_edition.pdf

[53] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit. p117

[54] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit..

[55] Women in Prison (2012) & van Wormer (2010) cited in PRT (2013) International Good Practice op cit.

[56] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2014) Transforming Lives: reducing women's imprisonment. op cit.

[57] Ibid. citing NOMS (2013) Women's Custodial Estate Review

[58] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[59] Briggs, S. & Taylor, K. (2012) What Works With Women Offenders in the Community in Canada: Research and Best Practices. Journal of Community Corrections, 5:15.

[60] Bartel & Gaffney (2011) Op cit., citing Watson (2001)

[61] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit.

[62] Correctional Service Canada (CSC) (2006) Ten-Year Status Report on Women's Corrections 1996-2006. URL: http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/publications/fsw/wos24/index-eng.shtml

[63] Fair, H. (2009) ) International review of women's prisons. op cit.

[64] Government of Canada. Women's Facilities. URL: http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/women/002002-0002-eng.shtml

[65] Government of Canada. Correctional Service of Canada. Nova Institution for Women URL: http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/institutions/001002-1003-eng.shtml

[66] Government of Canada. Correctional Service of Canada. Grand Valley Institution for Women. URL: http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/institutions/001002-3006-eng.shtml

[67] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit.

[68] Government of Canada. Correctional Service of Canada. Nova Institution for Women URL: http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/institutions/001002-1003-eng.shtml

[69] Fair, H. (2009) ) International review of women's prisons. op cit.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2014) Prisoners in Australia 2014. Australian Bureau of Statistics. URL: AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4517.0Main+Features12014?OpenDocument">http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4517.0Main+Features12014?OpenDocument

[71] Ibid.

[72] Boronia Pre-release Centre, Australia. URL: http://www.correctiveservices.wa.gov.au/prisons/prison-locations/boronia.aspx.

[73] Bartels, L. & Gaffney, A. (2011) Op cit.. p15

[74] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit.

[75] NSW Government Justice Corrective Services, Mum Shirl Unit (MSU) URL: http://www.correctiveservices.justice.nsw.gov.au/programs/at-risk-offenders/mum-shirl-unit

[76] See http://www.goodlivesmodel.com/

[77] See http://duihua.org/wp/?p=5733 (Webpage- Adhering to the Bangkok Rules: Norway's Largest Women's Prison)

[78] European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) (1992) Report to the Swedish Government on the visit to Sweden from 5 to 14 May 1991. Council of Europe.

[79] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit.

[80] UK Parliament (2015) Justice - First Special Report. Women offenders: follow up. 23 July 2015 (Appendix: Government Response) URL: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201516/cmselect/cmjustice/374/37402.htm

[81] Fair, H. (2009) ) International review of women's prisons. op cit.

[82] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit.

[83] Ibid.

[84] Ibid. citing Carcedo, R. et al (2008)

[85] E.g. Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit.; PRT (2014) Transforming Lives: reducing women's imprisonment. op cit.; Scottish Government (2015) Evaluation of Sixteen Women's Community Justice Centres in Scotland (forthcoming);.

[86] Lindstrom, P. & Leijonram, E. (2008) The Swedish Prison System op cit.

[87] European Prison Observatory (2013) Prison Conditions in France. EPO: Rome. URL: http://www.prisonobservatory.org/upload/PrisonconditionsinFrance.pdf

[88] See http://www.irishprisons.ie/index.php/joomlaorg/mountjoy-campus/dochas-centre

[89] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit.

[90] Prison Review Team (2011) Review of the Northern Ireland Prison Service: Conditions, management and oversight of all prisons. URL: http://www.dojni.gov.uk/index/ni-prison-service/nips-publications/reports-reviews-nips/owers-review-of-the-northern-ireland-prison-service.pdf

[91] PRT (2014) Transforming Lives: reducing women's imprisonment. op cit.

[92] NOMS (2013) Women's Custodial Estate Review. London: NOMS URL: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/a-new-approach-to-managing-female-offenders

[93] UK Parliament (2015) Justice - First Special Report op cit.

[94] Justice Committee's Thirteenth Report Women Offenders: Follow Up. 17 March 2015 URL: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmjust/314/31402.htm

[95] PRT (2014) Transforming Lives: reducing women's imprisonment. op cit. p45

[96] Fair (2009) ) International review of women's prisons. op cit..

[97] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit..

[98] Fair (2009) ) International review of women's prisons. op cit.

[99] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit. p34

[100] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[101] Ibid.

[102] Ibid.

[103] Ibid.

[104] Ibid.

[105] Ibid.

[106] See Lappi-Seppala (2012) "The Scotland 2012 Finnish prison reduction population"

http://www.chrissmithonline.co.uk/files/scotland-2012-finnish-prison-reduction.pdf

[107] Pratt,J. (2007) op cit. See also ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. Op cit..

[108] Ibid. p130

[109] Confederation of European Probation (2015) The Prisons of the Future: Results of a short CEP questionnaire among its members. CEP.

[110] Pratt, J. (2008) op cit.

[111] See News in English.no (21/08/14) Packed prisons turn away convicts. URL: http://www.newsinenglish.no/2014/08/21/packed-prisons-turn-away-convicts/

[112] Pratt, J. (2007) op cit.

[113] Strandberg, K (2010). The Norway Prison System. Corrections Forum, Vol. 19 Issue 6, pp73-77.

[114] See Sanctions, 2013. Statistics Norway. URL: https://www.ssb.no/en/sosiale-forhold-og-kriminalitet/statistikker/straff

[115] Women in Prison (2012) Report on the Roundtable on Small Custodial Units, 15th May 2012. URL:

http://www.amimb.org.uk/documents/SmallCustodialUnitsReport-finalversion.pdf

[116] Briggs, S. & Taylor, K. (2012) op cit.

[117] Public Safety Canada (2012) 2012 Corrections and Conditional Release Statistical Overview. URL: http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/2012-ccrs/index-eng.aspx#c4

[118] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit.

[119] The Correctional Investigator Canada (2007); Pollack (2008), cited in Fair (2009) op cit.

[120] Kilty, J. (2012). 'It's like they don't want you to get better' : Psy.control of women in the carceral context. Feminism & Psychology Vol. 22 Issue 2, p162-182

[121] Barrett, M. R., Allenby, K., & Taylor, K. (2010). Twenty years later: Revisiting The Task Force on Federally Sentenced Women. Research Report R-222. Ottawa: Correctional Service Canada. URL: http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/research/005008-0222-eng.shtml

[122] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) Op cit.. citing Glube et al (2007)

[124] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit. p7

[125] Barrett, Allenby, & Taylor, (2010) Twenty Years Later. op cit.

[126] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit.

[127] Ibid. p5

[128] See Directorate of Norwegian Correctional Service Website URL: http://www.kriminalomsorgen.no/information-in-english.265199.no.html

[129] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit. citing Salamone (2004)

[130] These figures are taken from the ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. (op cit..) and may therefore no longer be accurate.

[131] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit.

[132] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit. (Executive Summary)

[133] Ibid.

[134] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit.

[135] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[136] See: http://www.kriminalomsorgen.no/index.php?cat=265199

[137] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[138] Ibid.

[139] Ibid.

[140] Fair (2009) op cit..

[141] WHO/UNODC (2009) Declaration on women's health in prison: correcting gender inequity in prison health. Copenhagen & Vienna: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe & United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.

[142] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[143] Ibid. (pp51-59).

[144] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit.

[145] Ibid. p7

[146] Liebling, A. & Arnold, H. (2005) Prisons and their Moral Performance: A Study of Values, Quality and Prison Life. Clarenden Studies in Criminology: Oxford University Press.

[147] See http://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmiprisons/about-our-inspections/inspection-criteria/

[148] HM Inspectorate of Prisons for Scotland (HMIPS) (2015) Standards for Inspecting and Monitoring of Prisons in Scotland. HMIPS. URL: http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2015/03/8256/downloads#res472788

[149] See 'Prisons of the Future Project' at http://www.europris.org/projects/prisons-of-the-future/

[150] Confederation of Europe (2015) The Prisons of the Future: Results of a short CEP questionnaire among its members. CEP.

[151] Hedderman, C. & Gunby, C (2013) Diverting women from custody: The importance of understanding sentencers' perspectives, Probation Journal 60(4) 425-438 p435

[152] Ibid.

[153] Ibid. citing Hough et al. (2003) p434

[154] Convery, U. (2009) Addressing Offending by Women: A Literature Review. Citing Bailie (2006). op cit.

[155] Ibid. citing Mair et al. (2008)

[156] Hedderman & Gunby (2013) Diverting women from custody op cit. citing Hough, Jacobson & Millie (2003)

[157] Convery, U. (2009) Addressing Offending by Women: A Literature Review. op cit. citing Hough et al (2003) & Tombs (2004)

[158] Ibid citing Brown et al (2004)

[159] PRT (2014) Transforming Lives: reducing women's imprisonment. op cit.

[160] SPS (2013) Female Offenders 2013 14th Survey Bulletin. op cit.

[161] The Home Office (2007) The Corston Report. op cit.

[162] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[163] Ibid. citing NSWDCS (2007)

[164] Scottish Government (2012) Commission on Women Offenders. op cit..

[165] Scottish Prison Service (SPS) (2013) Female Offenders 2013 14th Survey Bulletin. SPS. URL: http://www.sps.gov.uk/Corporate/Publications/PrisonerSurvey2013FemaleOffenders.aspx

[166] Sheehan, R. & Flynn, C. (2007) Women prisoners and their children, in Sheehan, R., McIvor, G. & Trotter, C. (2007) (Eds) What Works with Women Offenders. Willan Publishing: Cullompton, citing Johnston (1995)

[167] PRT (2014) Transforming Lives: reducing women's imprisonment. op cit. p41

[168] Sheehan & Flynn (2007). Women prisoners and their children. op cit.

[169] Ibid. citing Larman & Aungles, (1991); Farrell (1998); Myers, Smarsh, Amlund-Hagen & Kennon (1999); Covington (2003)

[170] SPS (2013) Female Offenders 2013 14th Survey Bulletin. op cit.

[171] Hairston, C. F., & Addams, J. (2001). Prisoners and Families: Parenting Issues During Incarceration. From Prison to Home: The Effect of Incarceration and Reentry on Children, Families, and Communities.

[172] Ibid. citing Baunach (1985) & Hairston (1991b)

[173] McIvor et al. (2009) Women, resettlement and desistance. Op cit.. citing McIvor et al. (2004)

[174] Barry, M. (2007) 'The Transitional Pathways of Young Female Offenders: Towards a Non-Offending Lifestyle', in R. Sheehan, G.McIvor and C. Trotter (eds) What Works with Women Offenders. Collumpton: Willan Publishing.

[175] Scottish Government (2015) What Works to Reduce Reoffending: A Summary of the Evidence (2nd Edition), citing Deakin & Spencer (2011). URL: http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2015/05/2480

[176] Action for Prisoners' Families (AfPF) (2013) Facts and Figures about Prisoners' Families June 2013 citing Home Office (2005) Resettlement Outcomes on Release from Prison, URL: http://www.prisonersfamilies.org.uk/uploadedFiles/2010_Publications_And_Resources/Facts_and_figures_about_prisoners_families_June2013.pdf,

[177] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) Op cit.., citing Mulhein, Gough & Menne (2010)

[178] Scottish Government (2015) What Works to Reduce Reoffending, op cit.

[179] McIvor et al (2009) Women, resettlement and desistance. op cit.

[180] Sheehan, R. & Flynn, C. (2007) Women prisoners and their children. op cit.

[181] McIvor et al (2009) Women, resettlement and desistance. op cit.

[182] Malloch, M., McIvor, G., Schinkel, M. & Armstrong, S. (2013) 'The Elements of Effective Through-Care Part 1: International Review'. The Scottish Centre for Crime & Justice Research Report No. 03/2013. URL: http://www.sccjr.ac.uk/publications/the-elements-of-effective-through-care-part-1-international-review/

[183] McIvor et al (2009) Women, resettlement and desistance. op cit. citing Morris et al (1995)

[184] Niven, S. & Stewart, D. (2004) Resettlement Outcomes on Release from Prison in 2003. London: Home Office. URL: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130128103514/http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/r248.pdf

[185] Wilkinson, C. (2004) 'Women's Release from Prison: The Case for Change', in G. McIvor (2004) (ed) Women who Offend. London: Jessica Kingsley.

[186] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[187] See http://nicic.gov/wodp/program/203-harriet-house

[188] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[189] Sheehan, R. & Flynn, C. (2007) Women prisoners and their children, in Sheehan, R., McIvor, G. & Trotter, C. (2007) (Eds) What Works with Women Offenders. Willan Publishing: Cullompton.

[190] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit. citing The Sentencing Project and Craig, S. (2009) (p43)

[191] See Mason-White, H. & Kearney, H. (2012) Children of (Alleged) Offenders: Revised Draft Framework for Decision-Making. Quaker UN Office. URL: http://www.quno.org/resource/2012/3/children-alleged-offenders-revised-draft-framework-decision-making

[192] Sheehan, R. & Flynn, C. (2007) Women prisoners and their children. op cit.

[193] Williams, K., Papadopoulou, V. and Booth, N. (2012) Prisoners' childhood and family backgrounds. Results from the Surveying Prisoner Crime Reduction longitudinal cohort study of prisoners. London: Ministry of Justice. URL:

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/278837/prisoners-childhood-family-backgrounds.pdf

[194] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) Op cit..

[195] AfPF (2013) Facts and Figures about Prisoners' Families, op cit.

[196] Ibid.

[197] Ibid. citing Social Exclusion Unit Reducing re-offending by ex-prisoners (2002) Op cit..

[198] Sheehan, R. & Flynn, C. (2007) Women prisoners and their children. Op cit.., citing Baunach (1985)

[199] Ibid. citing Kampfner (1995)

[200] Ibid. citing Seymour (1998)

[201] AfPF (2013) citing AfPF (2003) Exploring the needs of young people with a prisoner in the family, op cit.

[202] Sheehan, R. & Flynn, C. (2007) citing Kampfner (1995) op cit.

[203] AfPF (2013) Facts and Figures about Prisoners' Families, op cit.

[204] Ibid. citing New Economics Foundation (2008) Unlocking Value: How we will all benefit in investing in alternatives to prison for women offenders

[205] Sheehan, R. & Flynn, C. (2007) citing Hagan (1996) & Eddy and Reid (2003) op cit.

[206] Ibid. citing Murray, J (2003) Fathers in Prison

[207] AfPF (2013) Facts and Figures about Prisoners' Families, op cit., citing Murray & Farrington (2008) The effects of parental imprisonment on children.

[208] Sheehan, R. & Flynn, C. (2007) Women prisoners and their children. op cit. citing Seymour (1998)

[209] AfPF (2013) Facts and Figures about Prisoners' Families, op cit. citing Murray, J (2003) Fathers in Prison

[210] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit.

[211] Prison Reform Trust (PRT) (2013) International Good Practice. op cit. p48

[212] ICPS (2008) International Profile of Women's Prisons. op cit.

[213] Ibid.

[214] Ibid.

[215] Pratt, J. (2008) Op cit..

[216] See http://www.loc.gov/law/help/children-residing-with-parents-in-prison/foreign.php#norway

[217] Spanish Penitentiary Institution (SPI) (2011) The Spanish Prison System. URL: IP_inglxs.pdf">http://www.institucionpenitenciaria.es/web/export/sites/default/datos/descargables/publicaciones/libro_IP_inglxs.pdf

[218] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.

[219] Spanish Penitentiary Institution (2011) op cit.

[220] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) The Spanish Prison System. op cit.

[221] Barrett, Allenby, & Taylor, (2010) Twenty Years Later. op cit.

[222] Bartels, L. & Gaffney, A. (2011) Op cit.. citing Loper & Tuerk (2006) p67

[223] Prison Review Team (2011) Review of the Northern Ireland Prison Service: Conditions, management and oversight of all prisons. URL: http://www.dojni.gov.uk/index/ni-prison-service/nips-publications/reports-reviews-nips/owers-review-of-the-northern-ireland-prison-service.pdf

[224] Fair, H. (2009) op cit.

[225] Lawston & Meiners (2011) cited in Lawston, J. (2013) The expansion of punishment in the United States, in Malloch, M. & McIvor, G. (2013) (Eds) Women, Punishment and Social Justice: Human rights and penal practices. Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge

[226] Lawston, J. (2013) The expansion of punishment in the United States, op cit.

[227] Convery, U. (2009) Addressing Offending by Women: A Literature Review. op cit.

[228] Lawston, J. (2013) The expansion of punishment in the United States,Op cit.. p115

[229] Convery, U. (2009) Addressing Offending by Women: A Literature Review. Citing Patel & Stanley (2008: 17) op cit.

[230] Ibid. citing Gelsthorpe, L. (2006) .

[231] Ibid. citing Patel & Stanley (2008)

[232] Lawston & Meiners (2011) cited in Lawston, J. (2013) The expansion of punishment in the United States, op cit.

[233] Hedderman & Gunby (2013) Diverting women from custody, op cit., citing Ministry of Justice, (2011b)

[234] Malloch et al. (2013) 'The Elements of Effective Through-Care Part 1: International Review'. op cit.

[235] McIvor et al. (2009) Women, resettlement and desistance. op cit. citing Gelsthorpe & Sharpe (2007)

[236] E.g. PRT (2014) Transforming Lives: reducing women's imprisonment. op cit.(p66)

[237] Scottish Government (2012) Commission on Women Offenders. op cit.- based on an analysis of prisons data carried out by the Scottish Government Justice Analytical Services.

[238] E.g. the Prison Reform Trust (URL - http://www.prisonreformtrust.org.uk/ProjectsResearch/Women), Soroptimist International (e.g. see http://www.prisonreformtrust.org.uk/Portals/0/Documents/Soroptimist%20Action%20Pack_onlineV5.pdf), the Scottish Consortium for Crime and Criminal Justice (see http://www.scccj.org.uk/index.php/2015/06/turn-off-the-tap-a-bold-strategy-for-women-and-justice-in-scotland/)

[239] Bartels & Gaffney (2011) op cit.