Minoritised Ethnic Women's Experiences of Domestic Abuse and Barriers to Help-Seeking: A Summary of the Evidence

This report provides a summary of UK evidence on minoritised ethnic women’s experiences of domestic abuse, the barriers to help-seeking and reporting abuse, and the social and structural factors that influence women’s experiences.


References

Anitha, S. (2011) Legislating Gender Inequalities: The Nature and Patterns of Domestic Violence Experienced by South Asian Women With Insecure Immigration Status in the United Kingdom. Violence Against Women, 17(10), 1260-1285. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211424571

Anitha, S. (2019) Understanding Economic Abuse Through an Intersectional Lens: Financial Abuse, Control, and Exploitation of Women's Productive and Reproductive Labor. Violence Against Women, 25(15), 1854-1877. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218824050

Gill, A. K., & Anitha, S. (2023). The nature of domestic violence experienced by Black and minoritised women and specialist service provision during the COVID-19 pandemic: practitioner perspectives in England and Wales. Journal of Gender-Based Violence, 7(2), 252-270. https://doi.org/10.1332/239868021X16661761362132

Anitha, S., & Gill, A. K. (2022). Domestic violence during the pandemic: 'By and for' frontline practitioners' mediation of practice and policies to support racially minoritised women. Organization, 29(3), 460-477. https://doi.org/10.1177/13505084221074039

Aplin, R. (2017) Exploring the role of mothers in 'honour' based abuse perpetration and the impact on the policing response, Women's Studies International Forum, 60, pp 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2016.10.007

Aplin, R. (2019) Policing UK Honour-based Abuse Crime. London: Palgrave.

Azad, M.Z. (2021) 'Experiences of domestic abuse within the South Asian Community'. Journal of Global Faultlines 8(1): 50-68

Ajayi, C E, Chantler, K, Radford, L. (2021) The Role of Cultural Beliefs, Norms, and Practices in Nigerian Women's Experiences of Sexual Abuse and Violence, Violence Against Women 28, 2, pp 465–486.

Ajayi, C E, Chantler, K, Radford, L. (2022) A feminist-intersectional analysis of sexual violence experienced by Nigerian women who are living in England, Journal of Gender-Based Violence, 6, pp 29–43.

Bates, L. (2018) Females perpetrating honour-based abuse: controllers, collaborators or coerced? Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 10, 4, pp 293-303.

Bates, L. (2021). Honor-Based Abuse in England and Wales: Who Does What to Whom? Violence Against Women, 27(10), 1774-1795. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220952168

Begum, R, Khan, R, Brewer, G, and Hall, B. (2020) "They Will Keep Seeing Young Women Murdered by Men. Enough Is Enough-We Have Seen too Many Women Lose Their Lives." Lessons for Professionals Working with Victims of 'Honour' Abuse and Violence, Genealogy 4,3, p69.

BMA (2014) Domestic abuse. BMA Board of Science. www.bma.org – accessed 15 Jan 2024.

Brooks-Hay, O., Burman, M. & Bradley, L. (2019) Justice Journeys: Informing policy and practice through lived experience of victim‐survivors of rape and serious sexual assault. SCCJR.

Cancoro de Matos, M. and McFeely, C. (2019) "I didn't think this service was for people like us": improving service response to BME survivors of sexual violence, Journal of Gender-Based Violence, 3, 3, pp 339–354.

Carline, A and Easteal P. (2014) Shades of Grey – Domestic and Sexual Violence Against Women: Law Reform and Society. UK: Routledge

Chantler, K. (2018) Researching gender-based violence with minoritised communities in the UK, in Lombard, N (ed). The Routledge Handbook of Gender and Violence. UK: Routledge

Chantler, K., Bowen, E. & Batsleer, J. (2003) South Asian women: exploring systemic service inequalities around attempted suicide and self-harm. European Journal of Social Work, Vol. 6, No. 1

Chantler, K., Gangoli, G., and Thiara, R. (2019) Muslim women and gender based violence in India and the UK, Critical Social Policy, 39, 2, pp 163-183.

Chantler, K., & McCarry, M. (2019). Forced Marriage, Coercive Control, and Conducive Contexts: The Experiences of Women in Scotland. Violence Against Women, 26(1), pp89-109. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219830234

Chantler, K., Mirza, N., Mackenzie, M. (2022) Policy and Professional Responses to Forced Marriage in Scotland, The British Journal of Social Work, Volume 52, Issue 2, March 2022, pp 833–849, https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcab068

Christoffersen, A. (2021) Intersectionality in practice: Research findings for practitioners and policy makers.

Cowburn, M, Gill, A, and Harrison, K. (2015) Speaking about sexual abuse in British South Asian communities: offenders, victims and the challenges of shame and reintegration, Journal of Sexual Aggression, 21, pp 4-15.

Day, A S and Gill, A K. (2020) Applying intersectionality to partnerships between women's organizations and the criminal justice system in relation to domestic violence, British Journal of Criminology, 60, pp 830-850.

Davidge, S and Magnusson, L. (2019) The Domestic Abuse Report 2019: The Economics of Abuse. Women's Aid Federation of England

Dudley, R. (2017) Domestic abuse and women with 'no recourse to public funds': the state's role in shaping and reinforcing coercive control. Families, Relationships and Societies, 6, 2, pp. 201-217.

Eshareturi, C, Lyle, C, and Morgan, A. (2014) Policy Responses to Honor-Based Violence: A Cultural or National Problem? Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 23, pp 369–382.

Fahmy, E. , Williamson, E., & Pantazis, C. (2016) Evidence and policy review: Domestic violence and poverty. Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

Femi-Ajao, O. (2018) Intimate partner violence and abuse against Nigerian women resident in England, UK: a cross- sectional qualitative study, BMC Women's Health, 18,123.

Femi-Ajao, O., Kendal, S., & Lovell, K. (2020) A qualitative systematic review of published work on disclosure and help-seeking for domestic violence and abuse among women from ethnic minority populations in the UK. Ethnicity

and Health, 25(5), pp 732-746. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2018.1447652,

Forbes, E., (2021). Victims' Experiences of the Criminal Justice Response to Domestic Abuse: Beyond Glass Walls. Emerald Publishing Limited.

Gangoli, G, Bates, L., and Hester, M. (2019) What does justice mean to black and minority ethnic (BME) victims/survivors of gender-based violence? Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 46, 15, pp 3119-3135.

Gill, A. & Anitha, S. (2022) Written Evidence for the Women and Equalities Committee So-Called Honour-Based Abuse Inquiry, Dec 22. Available on the UK Committees Parliament Website at: committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/114476/pdf/

Gill, A and Brah, A. (2014) Interrogating cultural narratives about 'honour'-based violence. European Journal of Women's Studies, 21, 1, pp 72-86.

Gill, A.K., Cox. P. and Weir, R. (2017): 'Honour Based Violence and Abuse, Forced Marriage and Female Genital Mutilation: Shaping Services for Priority Victims in Hertfordshire', University of Roehampton, University of Essex and Herts Sunflower. Cited in What Works to Prevent Violence Against Women and Girls, Scottish Government (2020)

Gill, A, Cox, P, and Weir, R. (2018) Shaping Priority Services for UK Victims of Honour-Based Violence/Abuse, Forced Marriage, and Female Genital Mutilation, Howard Journal of Crime and Justice, 57, 4, pp 576-595.

Gill, A, and Harrison, K. (2019) I am talking about it because I want to stop it: Child sexual abuse and sexual violence against women in British South Asian communities, British Journal of Criminology, 59, pp 511-529.

Gill, A, and Harrison, K. (2016) Police Responses to Intimate Partner Sexual Violence in South Asian Communities, Policing, 10, 4, pp 446–455.

Gill, A and Khan, Y. (2022) Survivors Speak Up: Improving Police Responses to Sexual Abuse Cases in Black and Racially Minoritised Communities, in Gill, A.K., Begum, H. (eds) Child Sexual Abuse in Black and Minoritised Communities. UK: Palgrave Macmillan

Gill, A and Virdee, G. (2021) Intersectional Interventions to Prevent Violence against Women in Black and Minority Ethnic Communities, in Thiara, R and Radford, L (eds) Working with Domestic Violence and Abuse Across the Lifecourse: Understanding Good Practice. Jessica Kingsley Publishers

Gillespie, T., Hopkins-Burke, K. and Mellett, J. (2011): 'Honour based violence and the Multi-Age Approach in Nottingham: Response of local agencies to honour based violence', Nottingham Trent University.

Hague, G, Gangoli G, Joseph, H, & Alphonse, M. (2006) Domestic Violence, Marriage and Immigration: If you are immigrating into the UK to marry, what you might need to know. British Academy UK

Hague, G, Gill, A, and Begikhani, N. (2013) 'Honour'-based violence and Kurdish communities: Moving towards action and change in Iraqi Kurdistan and the UK, Journal of Gender Studies, 22, 4, pp 383-396.

Haq, J and Lewis, R. (2014) The violence of community? Conceptualizations of 'community' in responses to intimate partner abuse, Community Development Journal, 49,3, pp 373-389.

Henriksen, L., Kisa, S., Lukasse, M., Flaathen, E. M., Mortensen, B., Karlsen, E., & Garnweidner-Holme, L. (2023). Cultural Sensitivity in Interventions Aiming to Reduce or Prevent Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy: A Scoping Review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(1), 97-109. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211021788

Heron, R, Eisma, M, and Browne, K. (2020) Why Do Female Domestic Violence Victims Remain in or Leave Abusive Relationships? A Qualitative Study, Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 31, 5, pp 677-694.

Hester M., Gangoli G., Gill A. K., Mulvihill N., Bates L., Matolcsi A., Walker S.-J., Yar K. (2015). Victim/survivor voices - A participatory research project. Report for HMIC honour-based violence inspection. University of Bristol.

Hill Collins, P., & Bilge, S. (2016) Intersectionality. Malden: Polity Press ISBN 978-0-7456-8448-2.

Houghton C., Morrison, F., Warrington C. and Tisdall, E.K.M. (2023) Domestic Abuse Court Experiences Research: The perspectives of victims and witnesses in Scotland. Scottish Government.

Hulley, J., Bailey, L., Kirkman, G., Gibbs, G. R., Gomersall, T., Latif, A., & Jones, A. (2023). Intimate Partner Violence and Barriers to Help-Seeking Among Black, Asian, Minority Ethnic and Immigrant Women: A Qualitative Metasynthesis of Global Research. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(2), 1001-1015. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211050590

Husain, H. (2019) 'Why are South Asian Immigrant Women Vulnerable to Domestic Violence?' Inquiries Journal, 11(12).

Idriss, M.. (2020) "The Mosques Are the Biggest Problem We've Got Right Now": Key Agent and Survivor Accounts of Engaging Mosques With Domestic and Honor-Based Violence in the United Kingdom, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35,13-14, pp 2464–2491.

Idriss, M. (2017) Key agent and survivor recommendations for intervention in honour-based violence in the UK, International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 42, 4, , pp 321-339.

Imkaan (2012) Vital Statistics 2: Key findings report on Black, Minority Ethnic and Refugee Women's and Children's experiences of gender-based violence. London: Imkaan

Kandiyoti, D. (1988). BARGAINING WITH PATRIARCHY. Gender & Society, 2(3), 274-290. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124388002003004

Kanyeredzi, A. (2018) Race, Culture, and Gender: Black Female Experiences of Violence and Abuse. UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Kaur-Aujla, H, Shain, F, and Lillie, A K. (2019) A GAP EXPOSED: What Is Known About Sikh Victims of Domestic Violence Abuse (DVA) and Their Mental Health? European Journal of Mental Health, 14, pp 179–189

Kumar, C. (2018) Fault lines: Black feminist intersectional practice working to end violence against women and girls (VAWG), in Nayak, S and Robbins, R, (eds). Intersectionality in Social Work: Activism and Practice in Context. London, UK: Routledge.

Larasi, M. (2013) A Fuss About Nothing?: Delivering Services to Black and Minority Ethnic Survivors of Gender Violence – The Role of the Specialist Black and Minority Ethnic Women's Sector, in Rehman, Y, Kelly, L, Siddiqui, H (eds). Moving in the shadows: Violence in the Lives of Minority Women and Children. UK: Routledge.

Lombard, N., Proctor, K. & Whiting, N. (2022) Domestic Abuse (Scotland)

Act 2018 and the Criminal Justice System: Women's experiences two

years in; the emerging findings. SCCJR.

Love, G, De Michele, G, Giakoumidaki, C, Herrera Sánchez, E, Lukera, M, Cartei, V. (2017) Improving access to sexual violence support for marginalised individuals: findings from the lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans* and the black and minority ethnic communities, Critical and Radical Social Work, 5, 2, pp 163–79.

McLaughlin, E. et al (2023) Honour-Based Abuse in Scotland: Evidence and pathways to strengthen protection for victims. Scottish Universities Insight Institute

Milner, A. & Jumbe, S. (2020). Using the right words to address racial disparities in COVID-19 - ScienceDirect The Lancet Public Health, Volume 5, Issue 8, August 2020, Pages e419-e420

Mirza, N. (2016) The UK government's conflicting agendas and 'harmful' immigration policies: Shaping South Asian women's experiences of abuse and 'exit', Critical Social Policy, 36,4, pp 592–609

Mirza, N. (2017) South Asian women's experience of abuse by female affinal kin: a critique of mainstream conceptualisations of 'domestic abuse', Families, Relationships and Societies, 6,3, pp 393-409.

Mulvihill N, Gangoli G, Gill A & Hester M. (2018) The experience of interactional justice for victims of 'honour'-based violence and abuse reporting to the police in England and Wales, Policing and Society, 29, 6, pp 640-656.

Pande, S. (2013) Lost for Words: Difficulties Naming and Disclosing Sexual Violence in Hindi, in Rehman, Y, Kelly, L, Siddiqui, H (eds). Moving in the shadows: Violence in the Lives of Minority Women and Children. UK: Routledge.

Phoenix A. (1987) Theories of gender and black families. In: Weinger G, Arnot M, editors. Gender under scrutiny: new inquiries in education. London: Open University Press

Public Health Scotland (2023) Minority Ethnic women and violence against women and girls: Insights gathering project. Public Health Scotland. www.publichealthscotland.scot – accessed 9 Nov 2023.

Resnicow K., Baranowski T., Ahluwalia J. S., Braithwaite R. L. (1999). Cultural sensitivity in public health: Defined and demystified. Ethnicity & Disease, 9(1), 10–21. (cited in Henriksen et al., 2023)

Rogers, M. (2020) Domestic Violence and Abuse and Hidden Groups, in Ali, P, and McGarry, J, (eds). Domestic Violence in Health Contexts: A Guide for Healthcare Professions. Switzerland: Springer.

Safe Lives (2019) Guidance for Maracs Cases involving victims who are black or minority ethnic at Marac – Scotland. www.safelives.org.uk – accessed 15 Jan 2024.

Safe Lives (2023) 'Honour'-based abuse and forced marriage cases at Marac in Scotland Current and best practice responses. www.safelives.org.uk – accessed 15 Jan 2024.

Siddiqui, H. (2013) 'True Honour': Domestic Violence, Forced Marriage and Honour Crimes in the UK, in Rehman, Y, Kelly, L, Siddiqui, H (eds). (2013) Moving in the shadows: Violence in the Lives of Minority Women and Children. UK: Routledge

Siddiqui, H. (2018) 'Counting the cost: BME women and gender-based violence in the UK', IPPR Progressive Review 24(4). Available from:

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/newe.12076

Siddiqui, H, and Thiara, R. (2018) Returning home: Intersectionality, social work and violence against BME women and girls in the UK, in Nayak, S and Robbins, R, (eds). Intersectionality in Social Work: Activism and Practice in Context. London, UK: Routledge

Skafida, V, Morrison, F, and Devaney, J. (2021) Mothers living with domestic abuse in Scotland – a tale of poverty and social inequality. Centre for Research on Families and Relationships, Research Briefing 94

Skafida, V., Morrison, F., & Devaney, J. (2022). Prevalence and Social Inequality in Experiences of Domestic Abuse Among Mothers of Young Children: A Study Using National Survey Data from Scotland. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(11-12), 9811-9838.

Thiara, R. (2013) 'It's all about stopping you from getting on with your life': Post-separation Violence in the Lives of Asian and African-Caribbean Women, in Rehman, Y, Kelly, L, Siddiqui, H (eds) (2013) Moving in the shadows: Violence in the Lives of Minority Women and Children. UK: Routledge

Tonsing, K. N., & Tonsing, J. C. (2019). Exploring South Asian Women's Experiences of Domestic Violence and Help-Seeking Within the Sociocultural Context in Hong Kong. Violence Against Women, 25(12), 1417-1432. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218821443

UNICEF (2021) Defining Social Norms and Related Concepts. www.unicef.org, accessed 11 April 2024.

United Nations (2014) Special Rapporteur on violence against women finalizes country mission to the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland and calls for urgent action to address the accountability deficit and also the adverse impacts of changes in funding and services. 15 April 2014. www.ohchr.org – accessed 15 Jan 2024.

Voolma, H. (2018) "I Must Be Silent Because of Residency": Barriers to Escaping Domestic Violence in the Context of Insecure Immigration Status in England and Sweden, Violence Against Women, 24,15, pp 1830-1850.

Relevant Scottish Government Publications

Women's Justice Leadership Panel - The Case for Gendered and Intersectional Approaches to Justice (Scottish Government, 2023a)

Equally Safe 2023 - preventing and eradicating violence against women and girls: strategy (Scottish Government, 2023b)

Domestic Abuse (Scotland) Act 2018: interim reporting requirement (2023c)

Ethnicity in the justice system: evidence review (2023d)

The Independent Strategic Review of Funding and Commissioning

of Violence Against Women and Girls Services (Scottish Government, 2023e)

Tackling child poverty priority families overview (Scottish Government, 2023f)

The Vision for Justice in Scotland (Scottish Government, 2022a)

Using intersectionality in policymaking and analysis: summary findings (Scottish Government, 2022b)

What Works to Prevent Violence Against Women: A Summary of the Evidence (Scottish Government, 2020)

Bibliography/Further Reading

Chantler, K. and Thiara, R. (2017) We Are Still Here: Re-Centring the Quintessential Subject of Intersectionality, Atlantis, 38, pp 82-94.

Chun, J. J., Lipsitz, G., and Shin, Y. (2013) Intersectionality as a social movement strategy: Asian Immigrant Women Advocates, Signs, 38, 4, pp 917–940.

Crenshaw K. (1989) Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics, 1989 University of Chicago Legal Forum, 139.

Domestic Abuse (Scotland) Act 2018

Harris, S., Joseph-Salisbury, R., Williams, P. and White, L. A Threat to Public Safety: Policing, Racism and the Covid-19 Pandemic, Institute of Race Relations, 2021.

McLaughlin, E., Wheate, R. & McGowan, M. (2018) A confident approach in responding to the needs of domestically abused South Asian women – Laying the foundations for Police Scotland 2026 Strategy. Scottish Institute for Policing Research.

Sajed, E. (2023) Sabr, Silence and Struggles: Extended Family Abuse in Muslim and BME Communities in Scotland. AMINA.

Sikh Women's Aid (2021) From Her, Kings are Born: Impact and prevalence of domestic and sexual violence in the Sikh/Panjabi Community Sikh Women's Aid.

Siddiqui, H and Bhardwaj, A. (2014) 'Pandora's Box': preventing violence against black and minority ethnic women and girls, in Ellis, J and Thiara, R (eds). Preventing Violence against Women and Girls: Educational work with children and young people. UK: Bristol University Press.

How to access background or source data

The data collected for this social research publication:

☐ are available in more detail through Scottish Neighbourhood Statistics

☐ are available via an alternative route <specify or delete this text>

☐ may be made available on request, subject to consideration of legal and ethical factors. Please contact <email address> for further information.

☒ cannot be made available by Scottish Government for further analysis as Scottish Government is not the data controller.

Contact

Email: justice_analysts@gov.scot

Back to top