Minoritised Ethnic Women's Experiences of Domestic Abuse and Barriers to Help-Seeking: A Summary of the Evidence

Executive Summary

Introduction

This report provides a summary of UK academic literature on domestic abuse, and other forms of gender-based violence (GBV) in the domestic sphere, that minoritised ethnic (black and minority ethnic) women can experience, and the barriers to help-seeking and reporting abuse. The evidence review seeks to take an intersectional perspective to understand how social, cultural and structural factors can influence minoritised ethnic women's experiences of domestic abuse.

The review aimed to address the following research questions:

• How do minoritised ethnic women experience domestic abuse?
• How do minoritised ethnic women's experiences align with mainstream understandings of domestic abuse?
• What are the barriers to help-seeking and reporting domestic abuse for minoritised ethnic women?

In doing so, the review identified five common themes drawn from the evidence:

• Extended Family Abuse
• So-called 'Honour-based' Abuse
• Immigration Status and Language Barriers
• Cultural Insensitivities and Institutional Racism
• Specialist 'By and For' Services

Whilst domestic abuse can affect any woman, the review focuses on minoritised ethnic women as they are under-represented within the domestic abuse literature, and little is known about the complexity and nuance of their experiences. The purpose of the review is therefore to widen our understanding of minoritised ethnic women's experiences of domestic abuse.

Background

The Vision for Justice in Scotland (Scottish Government, 2022a) states that the

"current justice system was historically designed by men, for men, and thus does not meet the needs of over half of our society. We must therefore take urgent action to ensure women and children are better serviced by our approaches to justice." (p6)

Within the Vision for Justice Scotland report, women and children and how they experience justice are highlighted as a priority 'area for change', and the report also calls for a Scotland where "all individuals are equally safe and respected and where girls live free from all forms of violence and abuse, as well as the attitudes that perpetuate it." (p13)

Since then, there has been an increased focus on the needs of marginalised groups of society, and in particular, a move towards a more intersectional approach in Justice which recognises how social and structural inequalities impact on women's experiences of gender-based violence (GBV). This was articulated in the report from the ministerial-led Women in Justice Leadership Panel, Women's Justice Leadership Panel - The Case for Gendered and Intersectional Approaches to Justice (Scottish Government, 2023a) and the 2023 refresh of the Scottish Government's Equally Safe Strategy (Scottish Government, 2023b).

Academic literature describes how minoritised ethnic women are at higher risk of domestic-abuse related suicide, self-harm and homicide (e.g. Siddiqui, 2018; Chantler et al., 2003). International evidence highlights how barriers to leaving abusive relationships are heightened for minoritised ethic women (e.g. Hulley et al., 2022). There is also widespread recognition of under-reporting of GBV by minoritised ethnic women (Femi-Ajao et al., 2020; Azad, 2021; Gill & Harrison, 2019).

More broadly, social movements like Black Lives Matter and Me Too have brought to the fore the prevalence of structural, racial and gender inequalities (Azad, 2021). Statistics show that people from minoritised ethnic backgrounds are more likely to experience poverty (Poverty and Income Inequality in Scotland 2020-23), and that people living in the most deprived areas in Scotland are more likely to experience domestic abuse than those in other areas (Scottish Crime and Justice Survey 2019/20).

Against this backdrop of policy developments, academic insights and social inequality, there is an urgent need to better understand the needs and experiences of minoritised ethnic women in Scotland in relation to GBV, and to what extent these are reflected in current legislation, policy and practice. This report seeks to shed light on the reasons for under-reporting and to improve our understanding of minoritised ethnic women's experiences of domestic abuse.

Methodology

The review draws on 48 peer-reviewed journal articles, chapters and books published in the UK in the last 10 years. It is important to note that this is not a systematic evidence review and does not therefore claim to represent a full or exhaustive coverage of all the research on the topic. The review found very few empirical (primary research) studies undertaken in Scotland. The evidence presented is therefore mostly drawn from qualitative research studies conducted in England, with a predominant focus on the experiences of South Asian and Muslim women. The review is underpinned by an intersectional framework which recognises that minoritised ethnic women's experiences of domestic abuse are shaped by various structural inequalities and socio-cultural norms that may not affect (majority ethnic) white women or not in the same way.

Summary of the Evidence

• The evidence suggests that minoritised ethnic women are particularly vulnerable to domestic abuse and other forms of gender-based violence (GBV) because of the intersection of socio-cultural factors such as patriarchal norms and structural factors such as racism and immigration status.
• Minoritised ethnic women can experience specific and often complex forms of GBV in the domestic sphere which are not reflected in mainstream understandings of domestic abuse or in legislation (e.g. the Domestic Abuse (Scotland) Act 2018).
• This can have implications for how domestic abuse and other forms of GBV are perceived by minoritised ethnic women (and their spouses, families and communities) and also how services and the justice system responds.
• The literature (mostly drawn from studies with South Asian women) identifies two distinctive forms of GBV which minoritised ethnic women can experience in the context of domestic abuse. These are extended family abuse and so-called 'honour-based' abuse (HBA).
• Evidence suggests that underreporting and a lack of understanding can lead to abuse being overlooked or not recognised as domestic abuse (e.g. by the police) which can be a key barrier to supporting victim-survivors.
• The evidence suggests that minoritised ethnic women can face additional barriers and complications which can prevent help-seeking. This is due to 'intersectional discrimination', whereby structural and social inequalities (such as poverty, gender, immigration status) and socio-cultural norms (embedded in patriarchal and/or honour-based systems) compound minoritised ethnic women's experiences of abuse and make it harder to disclose abuse and seek help.
• The most commonly identified barriers were: immigration policies (e.g. fear of deportation, No Recourse to Public Funds), social-cultural issues (e.g. social norms informed by honour and shame), monitoring and surveillance / lack of social networks; and racism and cultural insensitivity which (UK) evidence suggests can lead to a lack of trust in the police and public services and a poor understanding of minoritised ethnic women's circumstances and needs.
• These barriers are intensified where women lack the financial means to support themselves (and their children), have a poor grasp of English and/or lack knowledge of the law and their rights.

Five common themes were identified from the evidence as relevant to minoritised ethnic women's experiences of domestic abuse. These are summarised below.

1. Extended Family Abuse

• The evidence demonstrates that, in the context of domestic abuse, some minoritised ethnic women, particularly South Asian women, living in extended family households can experience abuse perpetrated by both their partner and other family members in the household, typically the husband's family.
• Power dynamics relating to age and gender in extended family households may lead to the daughter-in-law having the least power. Family structures like these can create fertile conditions for domestic abuse and other forms of GBV to thrive.
• Key barriers to reporting abuse include dependency on households for money and housing, and near constant surveillance by family members.

2. So-called 'Honour-based' Abuse

• So-called 'honour-based' abuse (HBA) can be defined as abuse perpetrated against individuals who are perceived to have acted contrary to values or norms identified by a community as consistent with honour.
• HBA can include coercive and controlling behaviour, domestic servitude, physical and sexual abuse, financial abuse, social isolation, kidnapping, blackmail, forced marriage, female genital mutilation (FGM), and in extreme cases, forced suicide and murder.
• Some of the evidence distinguishes HBA from domestic abuse on the basis of the perpetrator (which in the case of HBA can include members of the family and community) and the motive (punishment for bringing shame to an individual, family or community).
• Overall, however, the literature reviewed for this report suggests that the nature of abuse which some minoritised ethnic women experience is complex and does not fit neatly into categories of crime or mainstream understandings of domestic abuse.
• Reporting HBA can be very difficult since the very act of disclosure is considered dishonourable. The way in which abuse such as sexual violence is linked to perceptions of a women's honour and how this is reflected in Hindi and Urdu languages can be a further barrier to reporting.
• The framing of HBA as a 'cultural' issue (particularly amongst Muslim communities) can lead to misinterpretation of domestic abuse and HBA, as well as negative stereotyping of these communities. Evidence suggests that this can sometimes make services reluctant to address GBV within minoritised ethnic communities for fear of being labelled as racist. At the same time, Islamophobia and racism can impact on how HBA is perceived within some communities, which may perpetuate the practice.

3. Immigration Status and Language Barriers

• Immigration policies can increase migrant women's vulnerability to abuse whilst at the same time providing a system open to exploitation by perpetrators.
• Dependency on spouses for the right to remain in the UK can fuel coercive and controlling behaviour, with perpetrators exploiting the situation to further the abuse. This is exacerbated when children are involved, as women fear being separated from their children.
• Women may feel they have no choice but to remain in abusive marriages to avoid risking homelessness or deportation, especially if they do not have support networks outside of the household or community.
• This can be the case even with the Migrant Victims of Domestic Abuse Concession (MVDAC), which entitles victim-survivors to three months leave to remain and access to benefits. Migrant women may be unaware of the concession or unable to disclose abuse whilst still living with their abuser(s).
• A poor grasp of English can be a significant barrier for some women both in understanding their rights, such as the MVDAC, and reporting abuse. Perpetrators again may exploit this by providing misinformation and preventing women from seeking help.
• Lengthy spousal visas and the 'No Recourse to Public Funds' (NRPF) condition can lead to women fearing homelessness and destitution if they leave. Other barriers include reluctance to report abuse to the police due to fear of deportation/negative impact on visa application; and a lack of understanding or knowledge of legal entitlements and support available.

4. Cultural Insensitivities and Institutional Racism

• UK evidence suggests that direct and indirect experiences of institutional racism and cultural insensitivity within the police and other organisations can lead to a lack of trust in public services and a reluctance to report or disclose abuse.
• Some evidence (research mostly conducted in England) suggests that where minoritised ethnic women have reported domestic abuse to the police some have been met with unresponsive, unsympathetic and/or culturally-insensitive and/or racist responses.
• A fear of being seen to be culturally insensitive or racist ('race anxiety') and/or professional (mis)understandings of GBV in minoritised ethnic communities as a predominantly cultural or private issue can result in domestic abuse being overlooked and a lack of action from the Police and other services.

5. Specialist 'By and For' Services

• A key barrier to help-seeking is a lack of service availability and/or services which are not accessible or tailored to the specific circumstances and needs of minoritised ethnic women.
• 'By and for' services can be described as specialist services that are provided by members of a community for members of a community.
• The evidence suggests that 'by and for' services are highly valued by victim-survivors from minoritised ethnic communities. Such services have the relevant cultural knowledge, language, and collective experiences of intersectional forms of marginalisation and GBV to empathise with and support minoritised ethnic women effectively.
• However, it is argued that a lack of consistent and sustainable funding for such organisations in the UK has hampered their ability to meet the needs of minoritised women experiencing domestic abuse.
• Further research, insights and engagement work is needed to identify the most effective ways to address the barriers identified in this review, including how statutory and mainstream services can respond more effectively to the needs of minoritised ethnic women.

Questions for Consideration and Further Research

The purpose of this review was to synthesise and describe the evidence. The evidence does, however, raise a number of questions which may warrant further investigation. These are set out within each thematic chapter, alongside two overarching questions which are:

• To what extent does current legislation, policy and/or practice reflect the complexity and range of domestic abuse and gender-based violence experienced by some minoritised ethnic women?
• What are the most effective ways to address the significant barriers to help-seeking that minoritised ethnic women can face when experiencing domestic abuse and other forms of gender-based violence?

Further research on the following topics may help inform future policy development:

• Intersectional data and research – more data and research is needed on the experiences and needs of minoritised ethnic women in Scotland (especially those from African, Caribbean and Black, Mixed, and Chinese ethnic groups, and religious groups such as Sikh).
• Understanding the relationship between HBA, family abuse and domestic abuse – further exploration of the complexity and interconnections between the various forms of GBV and how it manifests within different household arrangements and/or communities may help inform more effective policy making and service delivery.
• Causes and enablers of violence against minoritised ethnic women - more knowledge and understanding of the causes and mechanisms which enable domestic abuse and GBV in some minoritised ethnic communities may help inform more effective interventions (e.g. for perpetrators) and prevention strategies.
• Preventing domestic abuse – a review of best practice and 'what works' in preventing domestic abuse and other forms of GBV against minoritised ethnic women would be useful.