Public Value and Participation: A Literature Review for the Scottish Government

Citizens' Juries - An independent forum for members of the public to examine and discuss an important issue of public policy. The jury receives information from 'witnesses' to inform the development of options about what should be done, although a consensus amongst participants is not usually sought. Generally these take place over a number of days.

Advantages: deliberative process allowing participants the time to weigh up information and develop a set of options. Establishes informed public opinion about what policy-makers should do. High profile.

Disadvantages: this process will not deliver wider democratic engagement and empowerment and is not designed as a decision making tool.

Cost: Significant differences in the costing usually relate to how long the process is designed to last and the exact nature of the methodology.

Citizens' Panels - larger, demographically representative group of citizens used to assess public preferences and opinions. Participants participate in surveys at intervals over time. May be supplemented by focus groups and other methods of engagement.

Advantages: Can target specific groups if

large enough; Allows surveys or other research

to be done at short notice (once

the panel is established); more representative of the population than other forms; ability to track changes in views over time; costs may be lower than a large-scale one-off survey once the panel is established.

Disadvantages: requires considerable staff support

to establish and maintain; reflects your agenda rather than the community's; the database of names and

addresses requires constant updating.

Costs: vary depending on the size of the Panel, the methods in which the members are consulted and the frequency of consultation.

Consensus Building/Dialogue - Incorporates a range of methods designed to help participants identify common ground and mutually beneficial solutions to a problem. Stakeholders define the problem, devise the method and create solutions. Usually conducted through Workshops and similar meetings. Every process is tailor-made to suit the situation and the people involved.

Advantages: Deals well with contention and can really help with issues of low trust by giving control of the process over to the

participants; Is highly flexible and can be used at all levels.

Disadvantages: the process relies heavily on good facilitation, can be a slow process, and it won't deliver information representative of society as a whole.

Cost: The need for independent expert facilitation and possibly numerous meetings mean that the costs can be high.

Consensus Conference - a panel of citizens explores a topic by questioning expert witnesses after information and preparation time have been provided. Citizens choose questions and select the witnesses, and formulate their own conclusions. At the end of the conference, a report and recommendations are then circulated to key decision makers and the media.

Advantages: good public outreach; open and transparent; the public have greater input than in citizens' juries.

Disadvantages: The small sample of people it uses means that minorities might be excluded and it doesn't deliver detailed technical recommendations or results that are representative of society as a whole.

Cost: Expensive because of large facilities required.

Deliberative Mapping citizen and expert participants are divided into groups to consider the issue both separately from one another and at a joint workshop. Both groups can learn from each other without the experts dominating. The emphasis of the process is on understanding the different perspectives each offer to a policy process. The groups decide which criteria they will use to score the options against.

Advantages / disadvantages: Good for understanding public preferences but not for reaching a consensus; experts contribute but do not dominate.

Cost: Requires expert facilitation that contribute to high costs.

Deliberative Polling - A baseline poll is taken, after which participants meet for a few days to discuss the issues. Information is sent to participants and made publicly available. After a process of deliberation, the sample is asked the original questions again. Any changes in opinion are thought to represent the conclusions the public would reach if people had the opportunity to become more informed about the issues.

Advantages: combines representative methods with deliberative techniques; increases public awareness of issues; demonstrates the difference between peoples views before and after being informed.

Disadvantages: It doesn't provide qualitative information and requires the use of TV for wider public awareness

Cost: tends to be an expensive process.

Democs (Deliberative Meetings of Citizens') - a card game enabling people to absorb information and to generate discussion. During each round of the game people reflect on their cards and choose one or two that they feel are most important and explaining their choice. Once the group has voted on a range of responses or policy positions they attempt to draw a consensus.

Advantages: encourages people to form an opinion on a complex topic; encourages people to speak and get involved; enjoyable.

Disadvantages: it won't deliver lengthy deliberation; can create conflict; it doesn't deliver follow-up to people who have taken part and want more.

Costs: tends to be low cost.

Electronic processes - ranging from websites to online forums.

Advantages: allows participation from a broad/dispersed group of people who can participate at their own convenience; anonymous; large numbers can take part.

Disadvantages: excludes those without online access; written consultation can be a barrier; unmoderated.

Costs: Although the cost of venue hire and recruitment is mitigated, the costs of setting up and maintaining online participation are often underestimated and should be considered in advance.

Future Search Conference a large group of stakeholders are selected because they have power or information on the topic at hand or are affected by the outcomes. The preferred approach is to involve 64 people, who form eight tables of eight stakeholder groups. Participants are involved in a highly structured process, which ideally lasts two and a half days.

Advantages: those with a stake in the issue are involved; can be used to make decisions but has to be on an issue that participants feel strongly about.

Disadvantages: Requires a participants to contribute a considerable period of time; requires considerable follow up and support.

Cost: relatively high.

Participatory Appraisal - a family of approaches that enable local people to identify priorities and make decisions about the future, with the organising agency facilitating, listening and learning.

Advantages: has the potential to be extremely empowering and reliable as proposals are typically acted upon immediately to effect change prior to the next participatory appraisal session.

Disadvantages: proper training required for those involved.

Costs: can be very expensive.

Participatory Strategic Planning - This is a four-stage process.

1. group comes up with a vision for the future of the organisation or community.

2. They work out the contradictions or obstacles that are preventing them reaching their vision.

3. they agree a strategic direction that will help them overcome these barriers and reach the vision.

4. The final stage is about implementation planning.

Each stage uses a consensus workshop process and a combination of working individually, in small groups and with the whole group.

Advantages: A quick way of enabling a diverse group to reach agreement; an inspiring process; Good for building ownership and commitment within a group and can deliver a clear direction, but perhaps not the finer details.

Disadvantages: trained and experienced facilitators are required; people need to commit to the process before-hand; requires hard work and commitment on the day; all major stakeholders need to be in the room.

Costs: dependent on the cost of trained facilitators.

Planning for Real this uses 3D models of a local area to enable participants to suggest the ways they'd like to see their community develop.

Advantages / disadvantages: Clearly reflects local priorities but risks being dominated by stronger individuals and won't deliver input to regional or national level decision making.

Costs: dependent on the size of the group, but does not have to be expensive.

Open Space Technology or events are organised around central theme. Participants are invited to identify issues for which they are willing to take responsibility for running a session. Once discussion topics are exhausted the participants sign up for the ones they wish to take part in. This creates a very open environment for discussion and fosters mutual interest.

Advantages / disadvantages: This is dynamic and harnesses creativity. It can be used to make decisions but remains an extremely flexible process so cannot be used to direct people to a specific outcome.

Cost: relatively cheap method allowing an unlimited number of participants to form their own discussions around a central them

User Panels: regular meetings between service users to talk about the quality of a service or related issues. By identifying the concerns and priorities of service users they can generate ideas for improvement or help to identify problems early on.

Advantages: It's a good way to work with people who aren't usually heard and is an interesting sounding board for new approaches;

Changes can be traced over time; panel members are generally well informed of the issues.

Disadvantages: It risks being unrepresentative but it is a good way to establish dialogue between service providers and users.

Cost: does not have to be expensive, but is dependent on in-house skills.

Youth Empowerment Initiatives: whilst there is no one method that is used, the focus of participatory approaches to working with young people tends to be on empowerment.

Advantages: allows young people to participate and offers them the support and training to get involved; it can build people's feeling of self worth.

Disadvantages: high turnover; some risk being tokenistic or patronising towards young people but it can empower individuals and provide information on young people's values and priorities.

Cost: varying dependent on which method used.