Anti-bullying guidance for adults working with children and young people

Understanding bullying and its impacts

What is bullying?

“Bullying is face-to-face and/or online behaviour which impacts on a person’s sense of physical and emotional safety, their capacity to feel in control of their life and their ability to respond effectively to the situation they are in.

“The behaviour does not need to be repeated, or intended to cause harm, for it to have an impact. Bullying behaviour can be physical, emotional or verbal and can cause people to feel hurt, threatened, frightened and left out.”

• This behaviour can harm people mentally, emotionally, socially and physically.
• The actual behaviour (for example, actions, looks, messages, confrontations or physical interventions) does not always need to be repeated for it to have an ongoing impact. The fear of behaviour reoccurring may have a lasting impact.
• Bullying is more likely to take place in the context of an existing imbalanced relationship, but may also occur where no previous or current relationship exists.
• Bullying may be carried out by an individual or can sometimes involve a group of people.

Bullying behaviour can include the following.

• Being called names, teased, put down or threatened (face to face and/or online).
• Being hit, tripped, pushed or kicked.^‹ Further discussion of physical behaviour is contained at Section 3.›
• Having belongings taken or damaged.
• Being ignored, left out or having rumours spread about you (face-to-face and/or online).
• Sending abusive messages, pictures or images on social media, online gaming platforms or phones/tablets.
• Behaviour which makes people feel like they are not in control of themselves or their lives (face-to-face and/or online).
• Being targeted because of who you are or who you are perceived to be (face to face and/or online).
• Increasing the reach and impact of bullying or prejudice through the recruitment and/or involvement of a wider group.

The power imbalances and prejudices underpinning bullying

Complex social and relationship dynamics underpin bullying behaviour. There does not always need to be an existing relationship between the children and young people involved, but what is common is for there to be a perceived, or actual, imbalance of power.

Whilst there can be a number of factors which create aspects of difference amongst children and young people – for example, popularity, physicality or economic advantage^‹ Annual Child and Family Poverty Surveys Wales 2023› – these systemic, societal and structural inequalities often support unequal relationships that can generate and intensify bullying behaviours, making certain groups more vulnerable.

Such structural inequalities can manifest themselves in prejudice-based bullying. Prejudice-based bullying is when bullying behaviour is motivated by prejudice, based on dislike of an individual’s actual or perceived identity and reflects wider societal trends of inequality and power. Prejudice comes in a variety of distinct forms and prejudice-based bullying can have wide-ranging impacts on children and young people ’s health and wellbeing.

Prejudice is escalatory by nature, can be both targeted and non-targeted, and can manifest in a variety of different ways. Not all incidents where prejudice-based behaviour occurs will be bullying incidents; further discussion of behaviour which is not bullying can be found in Section 3.

Bullying behaviours can be related to a variety of characteristics of a child or young person’s identity or circumstance, for example, prejudice arising from socio-economic background, family circumstances or a child or young person’s appearance. There are a wide range of factors which may come under this heading, such as comments made about someone’s body or about wearing particular types of clothing.

The Equality Act 2010 protects individuals with protected characteristics from discrimination, victimisation and harassment and supports progress on equality. In a school setting, the relevant protected characteristics include disability; gender reassignment; pregnancy and maternity; race; religion or belief; sex; and sexual orientation. The equality obligations placed on education authorities and some schools are outlined at Appendix 1. Schools and education authorities should ensure that policies aimed at creating inclusive environments, preventing or responding to bullying meet these legal obligations.

This guidance provides information about responding to different forms of prejudice-based incidents and bullying behaviours at page 38. The Scottish Government has also produced specific guidance on supporting transgender young people in schools, preventing and responding to gender-based violence in schools, and resources are also available to support schools on responding to racism and racist incidents. respectme and LGBT Youth Scotland also published a resource for schools and organisations on effectively challenging homophobia, biphobia and transphobia. These publications provide more bespoke guidance on particular considerations for preventing and responding to these types of prejudice, including actions school staff can take in response.

Intersectionality and prejudice-based bullying

“Intersectionality” recognises that people’s identities are multifaceted and therefore their experiences of inequality and discrimination can be shaped by several factors at once. Children and young people may have multiple characteristics, which combine to shape their identities and experiences of the world. Therefore, their experiences of prejudice are unlikely to be homogeneous. For example, a lesbian young woman may experience a form of misogyny interconnected with homophobia that a heterosexual young woman is less likely to experience.

It is therefore important to note that children and young people who are affected by more than one form of inequality or discrimination may experience bullying behaviours which are the result of multiple prejudices. School staff, parents and others working with children and young people should consider if and how intersecting inequalities may be a factor in bullying behaviours, and take account of this when determining how to respond.

Structural inequalities refers to the economic, political, social and cultural structures, actions and beliefs that systemise an unequal distribution of privilege, resources, safety and power in favour of the dominant group at the expense of all other groups.^‹ What do we mean by race and racism? – Promoting Anti-Racist Education in Scotland (glowscotland.org.uk)›

The effect of systematic and structural inequalities is that bullying based on protected characteristics can take place between or within groups that could share or be perceived as sharing the same characteristic.

Internalised prejudice

When children and young people are exposed to stereotypes and discriminatory viewpoints, they can internalise these views. Internalised prejudice can damage their self-esteem, confidence, their sense of belonging and their view of their own intrinsic worth, identity, family and community. In some instances, this may lead children and young people to “play down” or not recognise prejudice-based bullying when they experience it, especially if they share the protected characteristic the stereotypes or discriminatory viewpoints relate to. This means that school staff and organisations may have to take action to address prejudice underlying bullying behaviours, even if the child or young person targeted has not raised it themselves. This may include supporting the child or young person to understand the form of prejudice-based bullying they may have been subjected to and involving them in decisions about how the matter is to be addressed and appropriately responded to.

Intergroup prejudice

Learned prejudices can also result in intergroup prejudice-based bullying, for example, where children and young people from a minority ethnic group at risk of facing racism target other children and young people with bullying behaviours connected to race. In some cases, this could involve using a language not known to school staff observing this behaviour, making it difficult to detect. Girls and young women may also target each other with behaviours reflecting misogyny. It is important to be alert to the possibility of intergroup prejudice and to create an environment which empowers children and young people to recognise different forms of prejudice and feel comfortable to talk about their experiences and raise any concerns.

The evolving nature of bullying: online bullying

In the digital world, online bullying, or cyberbullying, is a significant concern affecting children and young people in Scotland. This form of bullying involves the use of digital technologies, such as social media, messaging platforms, gaming forums, and mobile devices to intimidate, isolate or humiliate individuals.^‹ Left to their own devices - Young people, social media and mental health›

Online bullying should always be considered in context as a feature of the relationships involved and powerful emotions evoked, and not merely as a technological issue to be resolved. Online bullying should be seen as related to where the bullying occurs, rather than as a different behaviour type; many common bullying behaviours such as spreading rumours, exclusion from group dynamics, and threats can occur both online and offline. However, technology has increased the complexity and reach of bullying through non-consensual image sharing, video footage, photo editing, transient messaging, and fake accounts, creating a new global environment that demands careful, informed, and nuanced handling^‹ A systematic review of digital risk and mitigations in children aged 8 to 12 – Challenges and Opportunities›. Some behaviours, when conducted online, may constitute criminal offences; information on the legal framework can be found at Appendix 1.

Although the Health and Wellbeing Census Scotland 2021/22 found that children and young people were more likely to report having been bullied in-person/face to face at school than online, the landscape of online bullying has evolved significantly for children and young people due to increased screen time, the emergence of new social media platforms, and the growth of online gaming and virtual communities. Anonymous content creators and content that disappears can make bullying harder to detect, whilst the Covid-19 pandemic intensified the volume of online interactions and associated risks. Despite improved digital literacy, cyber-resilience and internet safety awareness amongst young people, the often concealed complexity of online spaces demands heightened adult vigilance and robust safeguarding measures. Online bullying can happen anywhere at any time, making it more pervasive and harder to find respite from than other forms of bullying.

“Social media spreads sensationalism, so a post made about you publicly can spread like wildfire, and garner abuse from not just the people you know, but malicious strangers around the globe.”

(Quote from young person, Scottish Youth Parliament workshop, December 2023)

Online bullying can be as damaging as offline bullying and may have more serious consequences due to the digital footprint, lasting presence, group dynamics, and potential for illegality. Online bullying should therefore be responded to with the same level of seriousness as any other form of offline bullying. Where online bullying is impacting the wellbeing and learning of the children and young people affected,^‹ Technology use and the mental health of children and young people› it is central to a whole-school or organisational approach to anti-bullying that these impacts are responded to appropriately.

Supporting pupils’ awareness of safe, secure and respectful use of digital devices and services is an important means for a school to support the development of responsible and global citizens, recognising and respecting children’s rights, and creating an anti-bullying culture. In schools, this learning can be delivered through the Curriculum for Excellence through the Health and Wellbeing and Digital Literacy experiences and outcomes. Mobile phone guidance for Scotland’s schools also sets out the features of a respectful and responsible use of mobile technology policy, including considerations for schools to support digital etiquette, digital rights and safe, responsible and secure use of mobile technology.

The Health and Wellbeing Responsibility of All Experiences and Outcomes include each and every practitioner’s role in establishing open, positive, supportive relationships across the school community to support and nurture the health and wellbeing of children and young people, promoting a climate in which children and young people feel safe and secure and by being sensitive and responsive to the wellbeing of each child and young person.

“Bullying of any sort should be taken seriously. I agree that online bullying should not be treated as less serious than face-to-face, but every situation need to be responded to in a way that is most supportive and constructive for those involved, and the right response will not always be the same.”

(Quote from young person, Scottish Youth Parliament workshop, December 2023)

Bullying, mental health and trauma

The mental health consequences of bullying for children and young people are well documented, and include reports of anxiety, depression, difficulty concentrating, sleep/eating disorders, self-harm, somatic symptoms and suicidality. Bullying can have detrimental effects that persist into late adolescence and beyond, and can contribute independently to mental health problems.

Children and young people can be exposed to experiences which impacts on the likelihood of them displaying or experiencing bullying behaviour. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are highly stressful and potentially traumatic events that occur during childhood or adolescence. These experiences can range from recurring issues like social exclusion or emotional neglect to single events such as physical abuse. While not all ACEs result in trauma, they are strong predictors of bullying behaviour, with greater exposure to ACEs increasing the risk of either engaging in or experiencing bullying during adolescence.

Trauma leaves a lasting, harmful impact on how individuals perceive themselves and the world, making it crucial to respond to trauma in anti-bullying efforts. Creating inclusive environments helps practitioners understand and address the external stressors that can lead to bullying, enabling proactive prevention and effective responses.

Bullying may be a way for some to externalise anger, especially when linked to events like parental separation or family substance misuse. An analysis of the Growing Up in Scotland cohort data found that the risk of bullying others increased when young people were living with only one parent or parents who reported drug or alcohol misuse.^‹ Sapouna, M. (2024). Adverse childhood experiences and bullying: Findings from the Growing up in Scotland cohort [Manuscript submitted for publication]. School of Education and Social Sciences, University of the West of Scotland.› Certain groups, such as those with previous trauma, care-experienced individuals, refugees, and those with disabilities or mental health conditions, are at higher risk of experiencing trauma and subsequent bullying.