Young people experiencing harms from alcohol and drugs: literature and evidence review

Footnotes

1 National Records of Scotland (July. 2021). Drug-related deaths in Scotland in 2020. Available at: Drug-related deaths in Scotland in 2020, Report (nrscotland.gov.uk)

2 NRS Scotland (Aug. 2021). Vital Events – Deaths – Alcohol Deaths - Alcohol-specific deaths. Available at: Alcohol-specific deaths 2020, Main Points (nrscotland.gov.uk)

3 ISD (Nov 2019). Alcohol-Related Hospital Statistics Scotland 2018/19. Available at: Alcohol related hospital statistics - Scotland financial year 2019 to 2020 - Alcohol related hospital statistics - Publications - Public Health Scotland

4 Tier 3 and 4 Treatment services refers to structured community and residential treatment

5 NHS National Services Scotland, Information Services Division (Jun. 2018). Scottish Drug Misuse Database: Overview of Initial Assessments for Specialist Drug Treatment 2016/17. Available at: https://www.isdscotland.org/Health-Topics/Drugs-and-Alcohol-Misuse/Publications/2018-06-26/2018-06-26-SDMD-Report.pdf

6 NHS National Services Scotland, Information Services Division (Jun. 2018). The National Drug Related Deaths Database Report: Analysis of Death Occurring in 2015 and 2016. Available at: https://www.isdscotland.org/Health-Topics/Drugs-and-Alcohol-Misuse/Publications/2018-06-12/2018-06-12-NDRDD-Report.pdf

7 Scottish Government and COSLA (2018) Public Health Priorities for Scotland. Available at:

https://www.gov.scot/publications/scotlands-public-health-priorities/

8 Scottish Government (Oct. 2019). Rights, Respect and Recovery: Action Plan. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/rights-respect-and-recovery-action-plan/

9 Scottish Government (Oct. 2019). Alcohol framework 2018: Preventing Harm. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/alcohol-framework-2018-preventing-harm-next-steps-changing-relationship-alcohol/

10 World Health Organization (2018) SAFER initiative. Available from: https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/safer/launch/en/

11 Scottish Government (Oct. 2019). Rights, Respect and Recovery: Action Plan. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/rights-respect-and-recovery-action-plan/

12 Scottish Government (Jan 2021). Drugs policy - update: statement by the First Minister - 20 January 2021. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/update-drugs-policy/

13 Scottish Government (2019). Getting it right for every child (GIRFEC). Available at: Getting it right for every child (GIRFEC) - gov.scot (www.gov.scot)

14 Scottish Government (2019). Scottish Schools Adolescent Lifestyle and Substance Use Survey (SALSUS) 2018. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/collections/scottish-schools-adolescent-lifestyle-and-substance-use-survey-salsus/

15 Scottish Government (Nov. 2019). Scottish Schools Adolescent Lifestyle and Substance Use Survey (SALSUS): drug use report 2018. https://www.gov.scot/publications/scottish-schools-adolescent-lifestyle-substance-use-survey-salsus-drug-use-report-2018/

16 Scottish Government (Sept. 2020). Scottish Health Survey 2019 – Volume 1: Main Report. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/scottish-health-survey-2019-volume-1-main-report/.

17 AUDIT is widely considered to be the best screening tool for detecting problematic alcohol use. It comprises ten indicators of problem drinking: three indicators of consumption, four of use of alcohol considered harmful to oneself or others, and three of physical dependency on alcohol. Given the potentially sensitive nature of these questions, they were administered in self-completion format for all participants. A Score of 0-7 indicates ‘low risk drinking/abstinence’, 8-15 indicates ‘hazardous drinking’, 16-19 indicates ‘harmful drinking’, and possible alcohol dependence is indicated by a score of 20 or more.

18 ScotPHO, NHS Public Health Scotland (2018). Hospital admissions, deaths and overall burden of disease attributable to alcohol consumption in Scotland. Available at: https://www.scotpho.org.uk/media/1597/scotpho180201-bod-alcohol-scotland.pdf

19 One unit is equivalent to 8 grams of pure alcohol.

20 Scottish Government (Mar. 2021). Scottish Crime and Justice Survey 2018/20: main findings. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/scottish-crime-justice-survey-2018-19-main-findings/

21 Scottish Government (Mar. 2019). Scottish Crime and Justice Survey 2017/18: main findings. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/scottish-crime-justice-survey-2018-19-main-findings/

22 ISD (Nov 2020). Alcohol-Related Hospital Statistics Scotland 2019/20. Available at: Alcohol related hospital statistics - Scotland financial year 2019 to 2020 - Alcohol related hospital statistics - Publications - Public Health Scotland

23 ScotPHO (2018). Hospital admissions, deaths and overall burden of disease attributable to alcohol consumption in Scotland. Available at: https://www.scotpho.org.uk/media/1597/scotpho180201-bod-alcohol-scotland.pdf

24 NRS Scotland (Nov. 2020). New Definition: Alcohol-Specific Deaths. Available at: https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/statistics-and-data/statistics/statistics-by-theme/vital-events/deaths/alcohol-deaths

25 Tod, E. et al. (2018). Hospital admissions, deaths and overall burden of disease attributable to alcohol consumption in Scotland. Available at: https://www.scotpho.org.uk/media/1597/scotpho180201-bod-alcohol-scotland.pdf

26 ISD Scotland (March 2019). Prevalence of problem drug use in Scotland: 2015/16 Estimates. Available at: https://beta.isdscotland.org/find-publications-and-data/lifestyle-and-behaviours/substance-use/prevalence-of-problem-drug-use-in-scotland-201516-estimates/5-march-

2019/

27 ISD Scotland (Nov. 2011). Estimating the National and Local Prevalence of Problem Drug Use in Scotland 2009/10. Available at: http://drugslibrary.wordpress.stir.ac.uk/files/2017/05/prevalence2009_10.pdf

28 Public Health Scotland, Information Services Division (June 2021). Drug-related hospital statistics Scotland 2019/20. Available at: Summary - Drug-related hospital statistics - Scotland 2019 to 2020 - Drug-related hospital statistics - Publications - Public Health Scotland

29 Public Health Scotland (Jun. 2021). Drug-Related Hospital Statistics: Scotland 2019 to 2020. Summary - Drug-related hospital statistics - Scotland 2019 to 2020 - Drug-related hospital statistics - Publications - Public Health Scotland

30 The ‘Sedatives/hypnotics’ group of drugs includes ‘prescribable’ benzodiazepines (drugs such as diazepam), ‘street’ benzodiazepines (for example, etizolam and alprazolam) and z-hypnotics (for example, zopiclone).

31 The ‘other stimulant’ category includes stimulants other than cocaine (e.g. caffeine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, BZP, PMA)

32 The ‘multiple/other’ drugs category includes hallucinogens, volatile solvents, multiple drug use and use of other psychoactive substances (e.g. ecstasy). This category may be used to indicate poly drug use when individual substances are not known or cannot be coded using existing diagnosis (ICD10) codes.

33 National Records of Scotland (July. 2021). Drug-related deaths in Scotland in 2020. Available at: Drug-related Deaths in Scotland in 2020 | National Records of Scotland (nrscotland.gov.uk)

34 ISD (Jun 2018). The national Drug-Related Deaths Database (Scotland) Report: Analysis of Deaths Occurring in 2015 and 2016.

35 There is a degree of reverse causality across a number of these domains, with negative outcomes in relation to a number of these domains also operating as risk factors for problematic alcohol and drug use.

36 Scottish Prison Service. (2019). 17^th Scottish Prisoner Survey 2019. Available at: 17th Prisoner Survey 2019 (sps.gov.uk)

37 Wright, C.; Kipping, R.; Hickman, M.; Campbell, R. & Herron, J. (2018). Effect of multiple risk behaviours in adolescence on educational attainment at age 16 years: a UK birth cohort study. BMJ Open, e020182.

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41 Kemp, P.A. and Neale, J. (2006). Homelessness among problem drug users: prevalence, risk factors and trigger events. Health and Social Care in the Community, 14, 319-28.

42 Scottish Government (Jan 2018). Health and Homelessness in Scotland: research. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/health-homelessness-scotland/.

43 Goodman, A. (2010). Substance use and common child mental health problems: examining longitudinal associations in a British sample. Addiction, 105(8): 1484-1496.

44 Hawkins, J.D.; Catalano, R.F.; Miller, J.Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychol. Bull. 112(1); 64-105.

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46 Wiles NJ, et al. (2007) Socio-economic status in childhood and later alcohol use: a systematic review. Addiction. 102:1546-1563.

47 West, P.; Sweeting, H. & Leyland, A. (2004). School effects on pupils’ health behaviours: evidence in support of the health promoting school. Research Papers in Education, 19(3): 261-291.

48 Karatzias, A.; Papadioti-Athanasiou, V.; Power, K.G. & Swanson, V. (2001). Quality of School Life. A Cross-Cultural Study of Greek and Scottish Secondary School Pupils. European Journal of Education, 36(1): 91-105.

49 Daniel, J.Z.; Hickman, M.; Macleod, J. et al. (2009). Is socioeconomic status in early life associated with drug use? A systematic review of the evidence. Drug and Alcohol Review, 28:142-153.

50 Katikireddi, S.V.; Whitley, E.; Lewsey, J.; Gray, L. & Leyland, A.H. (2017). Socioeconomic status as an effect modifier of alcohol consumption and harm: analysis of linked cohort data

51 ISD Scotland (Nov. 2020). Alcohol-Related Hospital Statistics. Available at: https://beta.isdscotland.org/find-publications-and-data/lifestyle-and-behaviours/substance-use/alcohol-related-hospital-statistics/

52 PHS (June 2021). Drug-Related Hospital Statistics. Available at: Data explorer - Drug-related hospital statistics - Scotland 2019 to 2020 - Drug-related hospital statistics - Publications - Public Health Scotland.

53 NRS (July 2021). Drug-Related Deaths in Scotland. Available at: Drug-related deaths in Scotland in 2020, Report (nrscotland.gov.uk).

54 Beckett, H. et al. (2004). Understanding problem drug use among young people accessing drug services: a multivariate approach using statistical modelling techniques. UK Government Home Office Online Report. Available at: http://www.dldocs.stir.ac.uk/documents/rdsolr1504.pdf

55 Bellis, M.; Hughes, K.; Nicholls, J.; Sheron, N.; Gilmore, I. & Jones, L. (2015). The alcohol harm paradox: using a national survey to explore how alcohol may disproportionately impact health in deprived individuals. BMC Public Health, 16(111).

56 MacDonald, R. & Marsh, J. (2002). Crossng the Rubicon: youth transitions, poverty, drugs and social exclusion. International Journal of Drug Policy, 13(1); 27-38.

57 Dong, M.; Anda, R.F.; Felitti, V.J. et al. (2004). The interrelatedness of multiple forms of childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. Child Abuse and Neglect, 28(7): 771-784.

58 Existing measures of ACEs are relatively crude and limited in a number of aspects; they fail to capture the severity or duration of these events; they provide equal weighting to all included experiences (for example, parental separation and sexual abuse); they do not take into consideration the subjective perceptions of these experiences by children and younger people, and; they do not take into account resilience.

59 Socttish Government (September 2019). Scottish Health Survey 2019 – Volume 1: Main Report. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/scottish-health-survey-2019-volume-1-main-report/

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62 Bellis MA, Ashton K, Hughes K, Ford K, Bishop Jand Paranjothy S. Centre for Public Health - Liverpool John Moores University (2016). Welsh Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study - Adverse Childhood Experiences and their impact on health-harming behaviours in the Welsh adult population.

63 Socttish Government (September 2019). Scottish Health Survey 2019 – Volume 1: Main Report. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/scottish-health-survey-2019-volume-1-main-report/

64 Walsh, D.; McCartney, G.; Smith, M. & Armour, G. (2019). Relationship between childhood socioeconomic position and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): a systematic review. J. Epidemiol & Community Health, 73(12); 1087-1093.

65 Alasdair Forsyth, Marina Barnard, Lesley Reid & Neil McKeganey (1998) Levels of Drug Use in a Sample of Scottish Independent Secondary School Pupils, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 5:2, 157-168

66 McVie, S & Holmes, L 2005, Family Functioning and Substance Use at Ages 12 to 17. Centre for Law and Society, University of Edinburgh.

67 Scottish Government (2019). Scottish Schools Adolscent Lifestyle and Substance Use Survey (SALSUS) 2018. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/collections/scottish-schools-adolescent-lifestyle-and-substance-use-survey-salsus/

68 McKeganey, N. & Norrie, J. (2009). Pre-teen drug users in Scotland. Addiction Research, 7(6): 493 507.

69 McVie, S. & Bradshaw, P. (2005). Adolescent Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use: Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime, No. 7. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.

70 Pandina, R.J.; Johnson, V.L.; White, H.R. (2010). Peer influences on substance use during adolescence and emerging adulthood. In L. Scheier (Ed.), Handbook of drug use etiology: Theory, methods, and empirical findings (p. 383–401). American Psychological Association.

71 Allen, M., Donohue, W. A., Griffin, A., Ryan, D., & Turner, M. M. M. (2003). Comparing the influence of parents and peers on the choice to use drugs. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30(2), 163–186.

72 Kirby, J.; van der Sluijs, W. & Inchley, J. (Dec 2008). Young People and Substance Use: The influence of personal, social and environmental factors on substance use among adolescents in Scotland. University of Edinburgh: Child and Adolescent Health Research Unit (CAHRU).

73 McVie, S. & Bradshaw, P. (2005). Adolescent Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use: Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime, No. 7. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.

74 McIntosh J, MacDonald F, McKeganey N (2003) The initial use of drugs in a sample of pre-teenage schoolchildren: the role of choice, pressure and influence. Drugs:Education, Prevention and Policy, 10: 147-158.

75 Weinberg, N. Z., Rahdert, E., Colliver, J. D., et al (1998) Adolescent substance abuse: a review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 252–261.

76 Farrell, M., Howes, S., Bebbington, P., et al (2001) Nicotine, alcohol and drug dependence and psychiatric comorbidity: results of a national household survey. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 432–437.

77 Cohen P., Chen H., Crawford T. N., Brook J. S., Gordon K. Personality disorders in early adolescence and the development of later substance use disorders in the general population. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 88 (Suppl. 1): S71– S84.

78 Fergusson D. M., Horwood L. J., Ridder E. M. (2007). Conduct and attentional problems in childhood and adolescence and later substance use, abuse and dependence: results of a 25‐year longitudinal study. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 88 (Suppl. 1): S14– 26.

79 Young, R.; Sweeting, H. & West, P. (2008). A longitudinal study of alcohol use and antisocial behaviour in young people. Alcohol & Alcoholism, 43(2): 204-214.

80 Miettunnen et al. (2013). Longitudinal associations between childhood and adulthood externalizing and internalizing psychopathology and adolescent substance use. Psychological Medicine, 44(8): 1727–1738.

81 Young Minds (2020). Coronavirus: Impact on Young People with Mental Health Needs. Available at: https://youngminds.org.uk/about-us/reports/coronavirus-impact-on-young-people-with-mental-health-needs/

82 Grant, B.F. & Dawson, D.A. (1997). Age of onset of drug use and its association with DSM-IV drug abuse and dependence: results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. J. Substance Abuse, 10: 163-173.

83 Patrick, M.E. et al. (2011). Adolescents' Reported Reasons for Alcohol and Marijuana Use as Predictors of Substance Use and Problems in Adulthood. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72(1): 106-116.

84 Cooper, M. L., Russell, M., Skinner, J. B., & Windle, M. (1992). Development and validation of a

three-dimensional measure of drinking motives. Psychological Assessment, 4(2), 123–132.

85 Gold, A.K.; Stathopolou, G. & Otto, M.W. (2020). Emotion Regulation and Motives for Illicit Drug Use in Opioid-Dependent Patients. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 49(1): 74-80.

86 MacDonald, R. & Marsh, J. (2002). Crossng the Rubicon: youth transitions, poverty, drugs and social exclusion. International Journal of Drug Policy, 13(1); 27-38.

87 Ridley, J. and Mcluskey, S. (2001). Exploring the perceptions of young people in care and care leavers of their health needs. Scottish Journal of Residential Child Care, 2(1): 55-65.

88 McKeganey, N. & Beaton, K. (2001). Drug and alcohol use amongst a sample of looked after children in Scotland Centre for Drug Misuse Research (unpublished)

89 McCann et al. 1996. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in young people in the care system. BMJ, (313):.

90 Pilowsky, D. and Wu, L. (2006). Psychiatric symptoms and substance use disorders in a nationally representative sample of American adolescents involved in foster care. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 351-358.

91 NHS National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse. Substance misuse among young people 2011-12. Available at:

92 Fountain J, Howes S. (2002). Home and Dry? Homelessness and substance use. London: Crisis.

93 EMCDDA (2008). Selected Issue 2008: Drugs and Vulnerable Groups of Young People. Available at: https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_64250_EN_EMCDDA_SI08_vulnerable-young.pdf

94 Public Health Scotland (2020). Scottish Drug Misuse Database. Available at: https://beta.isdscotland.org/media/3878/2020-03-03-sdmd-report.pdf

95 Scottish Drugs Forum (2007). Drugs and Poverty: A Literature Review. Available at: http://www.sdf.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Drugs__Poverty_Literature_Review_2007.pdf

96 Catalano, R. et al (2011). The Health Effects of Economic Decline. Annual Review of Public Health, 32.

97 National Advisory Committee on Drugs. (2010). Risk and Protection Factors for Substance Use among Young People: A Comparative Study of Early School-Leavers and School-Attending Students. Available at: https://www.drugsandalcohol.ie/14100/1/NACD_RiskYoungPeopleSchool.pdf

98 Scottish Government (2019). Scottish Schools Adolscent Lifestyle and Substance Use Survey (SALSUS) 2018. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/collections/scottish-schools-adolescent-lifestyle-and-substance-use-survey-salsus/

99 Odgers, C.L. et al. (2013). Is It Important to Prevent Early Exposure to Drugs and Alcohol Among Adolescents? Psychol. Sci.,19(10):1037-1044.

100 National Advisory Committee on Drugs. (2010). Risk and Protection Factors for Substance Use among Young People: A Comparative Study of Early School-Leavers and School-Attending Students. Available at: https://www.drugsandalcohol.ie/14100/1/NACD_RiskYoungPeopleSchool.pdf

101 Ward, J. et al. (2003). One problem among many: drug use among care leavers in transition to independent living. London: Home Office. Research, Development and Statistics Directorate.

102 ISD (Nov. 2019). CAMHS Tier Model. Available at: https://www.isdscotland.org/Health-Topics/Mental-Health/Child-and-Adolescent-Mental-Health/_docs/CAMHS-Tier-Model.pdf?20:28:07

103 Aberdeenshire have not yet submitted an Annual Report for 2019/20.

104 As these were open-text answers, it is challenging to draw strong conclusions from these as this likely does not provide a comprehensive list of the services available across each area. Further, it is unclear whether some of these activities are specifically tailored to younger people or whether the approach taken across all ages was available to those under the age of 25.

105 Scottish Government (Dec. 2020). Residential Rehabilitation in Scotland: Service Mapping Report 2019/20. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/residential-rehabilitation-scotland-service-

mapping-report-2019-20/

106 Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) waiting times - Quarter ending 30 June 2021 - Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) waiting times - Publications - Public Health Scotland

107 ISD (March 2020). Scottish Drug Misuse Database Overview of Initial Assessments for Specialist Drug Treatment 2019/20. Available at: https://publichealthscotland.scot/media/6315/2021-03-02-sdmd-report.pdf

108 Audit Scotland (2009). Report: Drug and alcohol services in Scotland. Available at: https://www.audit-scotland.gov.uk/report/drug-and-alcohol-services-in-scotland

109 ISD (Dec. 2020). Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) waiting times. Available at: https://beta.isdscotland.org/find-publications-and-data/conditions-and-diseases/mental-health/child-and-adolescent-mental-health-services-camhs-waiting-times/

110 Public Health Scotland. (Sept 2020). National Drug and Alcohol Treatment Waiting Times: 1 April – 30 June 2020. Available at: https://beta.isdscotland.org/find-publications-and-data/lifestyle-and-behaviours/substance-use/national-drug-and-alcohol-treatment-waiting-times/

111 Wisdom, J.P. et al. (2011). Barriers and facilitators to adolescent drug treatment: Youth, family, and staff reports. Addiction Research & Theory, 2: 179-188.

112 Cauce AM, Domenech-Rodriguez M, Paradise M. et al. (2002). Cultural and contextual influences in mental health help seeking: A focus on ethnic minority youth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology; 70: 44–55.

113 Ballon B, Kirst M, Smith P. (2004). Youth help-seeking experiences and their relation to help-seeking behaviours for substance use problems. Addiction Research and Theory 2004; 123: 241–260.

114 United States Public Health Service (USPHS). (2005).United States Public Health Service. Results from the 2005 National survey on drug use and health: National findings. Available at: http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NSDUH/2k5NSDUH/2k5Results.htm

115 Audit Scotland (2019). Drug and alcohol services An update. Available at: https://www.audit-scotland.gov.uk/uploads/docs/report/2019/briefing_190521_drugs_alcohol.pdf

116 Christie, G.I.G.; Cheetham, A. & Lubman, D.I. (2020). Interventions for Alcohol and Drug Use Disorders in Young People: 10 Key Evidence-Based Approaches to Inform Service Delivery. Current Addiction Reports. Available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40429-020-00336-6

117 Winters KC, Stinchfield R, Latimer WW, Lee S. Long-term outcome of substance-dependent youth following 12-step treatment. J Subst Abus Treat. 2007;33(1):61–9.

118 S. Maguire (2013). What Measures Can Be Taken to Address the Specific Problem of Young People Who Are NEET?, in: Intereconomics – Review of European Economic Policy, Vol. 48(4): 196-201.

119 While employment law remains reserved, the Scottish Government has influence over public sector pay and the supply chain of the public sector.

120 Audit Scotland (2009). Report: Drug and alcohol services in Scotland. Available at: https://www.audit-scotland.gov.uk/report/drug-and-alcohol-services-in-scotland

121 Smith, H. & Massaro-Mallinson, M. (2010). HEAT A11: Updated Drug and Alcohol Treatment Types. Available at: https://www.isdscotland.org/Health-Topics/Waiting-Times/Drugs-and-Alcohol/Docs/DATWT_TreatmentTypes_rev.pdf