Seasonal migrant workers in Scottish agriculture: research report

3. Evidence Review Findings

This chapter summarises findings from the evidence review in five sections, presenting findings which align to research aims of this study.

The conclusion emphasises the need for primary research with agricultural seasonal migrant workers in Scotland to address research gaps.

3.1 Introduction

This evidence review revealed relevant findings across all four aims set for this research namely:

1. Number and demographic characteristics of agricultural seasonal migrant workers.

2. Experiences of agricultural seasonal migrant workers

3. Experiences of employers in the sector

4. Long-term prospects and viability of the industry

It is important to highlight that two distinct perspectives are found in the literature.

One perspective discusses seasonal migrant workers as the 'supply of labour.' This suggests labour can be treated like a commodity. Many of the arguments around supplying a sufficient workforce for the UK's agricultural industry, food security, and preventing agricultural business from having to downscale or ceasing their activities are presented from this perspective. According to Maughan et al. (2020), this is the dominant perspective, a conclusion they arrived at based on an analysis of how social justice or food justice is reflected in policy proposals.

The second perspective focusses on migrants as human beings, with a diversity of factors influencing their decisions and experiences. This literature tends to focus on issues of marginalisation, exploitation and social exclusion. However, this literature also provides accounts of mixed and relatively positive realities of migrant workers on farms. Bringing together these contrasting perspectives Scott (2015) advocates for a temporary migrant worker scheme that is well regulated and moves beyond a view of workers as either 'commodities' and/or rural 'guests'.

The literature contains valuable insights, grouped in Appendix H as follows:

• Employer/worker motivations for seasonal migrant work in Scottish agriculture.
• Number and demographic characteristics of agricultural seasonal migrant workers in Scotland.
• Employer and worker experience of temporary migration schemes.
• Employer and worker experiences of recruitment.
• Experiences of retention.
• Experiences in Scottish agriculture as a seasonal migrant worker.

The sections below summarise key findings then concludes by explaining the limitations of the sources examined and how this evidence review informed the primary research within this study.

3.2 Employer and worker motivations for seasonal migrant work in Scottish agriculture

In summary, the literature discusses background reasons for employer and worker motivations.

The agricultural sector in Scotland is described as experiencing insufficient domestic workforce resulting in high dependency and reliance on migrant workers.

Qualitative studies show workers are motivated by earnings potential in the UK, compared to their home countries, though this is subject to exchange rates.

Other motivations include recommendations of people they know and a variety of individual circumstances.

3.3 Number and demographic qualities of agricultural seasonal migrant workers in Scotland

In summary, the wider literature confirms that the numbers of seasonal migrant workers year on year are hard to establish for any country.

Previous studies focus on shifts in demographics, especially country of origin of workers.

The literature contains commentary on the fluctuations due to schemes and regulation for movement of labour at a UK-level and the economic context in home countries.

3.4 Employer and worker experience of temporary migration schemes

Sources contained criticism of schemes, including the Seasonal Workers Pilot and Seasonal Workers Programme, especially the setting of quotas.

The literature highlights the importance of bringing the interests of employers and of migrant workers into the shaping of any schemes. The evidence review identified particular areas for any permanent scheme to address:

• Insufficient protection of workers' rights; including tying workers to employers in rigid ways (Consterdine and Samuk 2015), linked to visas and transfers, and improving the clarity on contracts (NFUS 2021)
• Right type of recruitment (better connecting farm businesses to prospective employees) and measures to increase the returnee rate (NFUS 2021)
• Insufficient integration measures (Consterdine and Samuk 2015), support and pastoral care (Zubairi et al. 2020)
• Closer relations between sending and host countries to coordinate migration and reintegration of workers to their home country (Zubairi et al. 2020).

3.5 Employer and worker experiences of recruitment

The literature shows recruitment has UK-based and home-country based elements.

The literature sets out formal roles and informal relationships between governments, the sector, intermediaries such as recruitment agencies, employers and workers. These are all affected by the UK scheme in place for agricultural migrant labour.

Studies explain the complications in recruitment, including the seasonal nature of work, for example weather dependency, leading to fluctuations in demand. Also, the economic and social context of workers' home countries varies.

Recruitment is described as being subject to competition for labour with other sectors (outwith agriculture) and other countries (outwith Scotland).

3.6 Experiences in Scottish agriculture as a seasonal migrant worker

There are both positive and negative accounts of seasonal migrant worker experiences in Scottish agriculture.

Authors highlighted concerns about the possibility of human trafficking and that the 'human rights of newcomers to the country' are not being upheld in practice.

The literature emphasises societal benefits of immigration, recommending more integration.

There is limited primary research with agricultural seasonal migrant workers in Scotland.

3.7 Conclusion

The limitations of the existing literature on seasonal migrant workers are as follows:

• It tends to focus on the UK or England rather than Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland.
• It either focuses on non-agricultural workers and urban areas, or agricultural workers as part of a wider population of workers.
• Where literature in English exists, this relates to other countries including United States of America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand.
• It takes the perspectives of immigration or labour market studies.
• There is a lack of literature on 'lived experiences' of seasonal migrant agricultural workers.
• The evidence presented ranges from large scale surveys, to targeted interviews.
• Authors consistently comment that what is covered in the media is 'newsworthy' rather than balanced or representative.

Research on migrants lived experiences in the UK has focused on urban contexts (largely in England) and on only one nationality (Polish migrants). Beyond this, there are some studies on rural development and the socio-economic impacts of migration (de Lima and Wright 2009, Findlay and McCollum 2013) and on the living and working conditions of non-agricultural seasonal migrant workers in rural and urban Scotland (Zubairi 2020), but few on lived experiences in rural contexts (McAreavey 2012, McAreavey 2017, Flynn and Kay 2017).The evidence review has outlined conflicting demands on what is required from seasonal migrant workers, reflected in attempts to formulate policy and address exploitation issues. Employers need affordable labour but, ideally seek skilled workers with a good level of English and the ability to work as a supervisor, which is most likely to be the case from returning migrant workers.

Studies reveal the importance of balance so that seasonal migrant work is attractive and fulfilling for both employers and workers. For example, working and living conditions are to be of a good standard but not too costly to the employer. Workers need reliable work and income, while employers want a flexible workforce. Wages need to be high enough to attract workers, but not too high to become unaffordable to the employer. Ideally, migrant workers would have sufficient access to services, language classes and support, but it is unclear who should be funding this and how it should be provided, in particular within the less densely populated rural areas where agricultural businesses tend to be located.

These conflicting demands suggest that policy on seasonal migrant workers in agriculture cannot be addressed in isolation from:

• Policy on migrant workers generally,
• Immigration policy,
• Labour and living wages,
• Rural services provision,
• Agricultural production,
• and the food system overall.

The evidence review supports the need for more primary research around:

• Experiences of the recruitment process, for example nature of work, terms and condition and pay.
• Experiences of costs and visa arrangements.
• Working and living conditions, for example treatment at work, housing, zero-hour contracts and piece rates, sick pay protection, training received.
• The extent of support required, accessibility and provision, for example skill levels, translation.
• Flexibility, for example the option of changing employer, accommodation charges.
• The extent of auditing and compliance inspections.
• Measures undertaken by employers for recruiting and retaining workers, costs involved.