Understanding extremism in Scotland: evidence review

Appendix A – Body of evidence

Research question 1: Defining extremism

• Ali, S. S., 2021, Far-Right Extremism in Europe, Multi-country (Europe), Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Journal of European Studies
• Backes, U., 2010, Political Extremes: A Conceptual History from Antiquity, Germany, Book, Academic, Theoretical, Routledge
• Baisagatova, D. B., Kemelbekov, S. T., Smagulova, D. A., Kozhamberdiyeva, A. S., 2016, Correlation of Concepts "Extremism" and "Terrorism" in Countering the Financing of Terrorism and Extremism, Multi-country (USA, Russia and Kazakhstan), Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, International Journal of Environmental & Science Education
• Bakali, N., 2019 Challenging Terrorism as a Form of "Otherness": Exploring the Parallels between Far-right and Muslim Religious Extremism, Multi-country (North America and Europe), Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Islamophobia Studies Journal
• Baruch, B., 2018 Evaluation in an emerging field: Developing a measurement framework for the field of counter-violent-extremism, None, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Evaluation
• Bötticher, A., 2017 Towards Academic Consensus Definitions of Radicalism and Extremism, Germany, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Perspectives on Terrorism
• Berger, J. M., 2018 Extremism, Multi-country, Book, Academic, Theoretical, The MIT Press
• Busby, E. C., 2022 Perceptions of extremism among the American public and elected officials, USA, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Electoral Studies
• Carter, E., 2018 Right-wing extremism/radicalism: reconstructing the concept, None, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Journal of Political Ideologies
• Commission for Countering Extremism, 2018 Study into Extremism: Terms of Reference, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Commission for Countering Extremism
• Commission for Countering Extremism, 2021 Operating with Impunity Hateful extremism: The need for a legal framework, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Commission for Countering Extremism
• Elliot, M. and Thomas, R., 2012 Public Law | Law Trove (oxfordlawtrove.com, UK, Book, Academic, Theoretical, Oxford
• Ford, K., 2017 Developing a Peace Perspective on Counter-Extremist Education, Multi-country, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Peace Review: A Journal of Social Justice
• Hardy, K., 2018 Comparing Theories of Radicalisation with Countering Violent Extremism Policy, Multi-country (UK, Australia, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands), Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Journal for De-radicalization
• Jackson, S., 2019, Non-normative political extremism: Reclaiming a concept's analytical utility, USA, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Terrorism and Political Violence
• Knight, S. and Keatley, D. A., 2020, How can the literature inform counter-terrorism practice? Recent advances and remaining challenges, Multi-country, Journal article, Academic, Mixed, Terrorism and Political Aggression
• Lowe, D., 2017, Prevent Strategies: The Problems Associated in Defining Extremism: The Case of the United Kingdom, UK, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism
• Malmros, R. A., 2019, From Idea to Policy: Scandinavian Municipalities Translating Radicalization, Multi-country (Denmark, Norway and Sweden), Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Journal for De-radicalization
• Martin, G., 2011, Terrorism and Homeland Security, USA, Book, Academic, Theoretical, Sage
• Martins, A. C. R., 2020, Extremism definitions in opinion dynamics models, None, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications
• Mattsson, C., 2018, Caught between the urgent and the comprehensible: professionals' understanding of violent extremism, Sweden, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Critical Studies on Terrorism
• Mythen, G. and Baillergeau, E., 2021, Considering strategies designed to counter radicalisation: Comparative reflections on approaches in the United Kingdom and Belgium, Multi-country (UK and Belgium), Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Oñati Socio-Legal Series
• Mythen, G., Walklate, S. and Peatfield, E., 2017, Assembling and deconstructing radicalisation in PREVENT: A case of policy-based evidence making?, UK, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Critical Social Policy
• Nasser-Eddine, M., Garnham, B., Agostino, K. and Caluya, G., 2011, Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) Literature Review, Australia, Report, Practitioner, Mixed, Australian Government
• Neuman, P. R., 2013, The trouble with radicalization, UK, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Oxford University Press
• Obaidi, M., Skaar, S. W., Ozer, S. and Kunst, J. R., 2022, Measuring extremist archetypes: Scale development and validation, None, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, PLOS One
• Onursal, R. and Kirkpatrick, D., 2019, Is Extremism the 'New' Terrorism? the Convergence of 'Extremism' and 'Terrorism' in British Parliamentary Discourse, UK, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Terrorism and Political Violence
• Pilkington, H. and Hussain, A., 2022, Why wouldn't you consult us? Reflections on preventing radicalisation among actors in radical(ising) milieus, UK, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Journal for De-radicalization
• Prinsloo, B. L., 2018, The etymology of "Islamic extremism": A misunderstood term?, None, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Cogent Social Sciences
• Pullerits, M., Turley, C., Gates, S. and DeMarco, J., 2019, Public Perceptions of Extremism, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, The Commission for Countering Extremism
• Pratt, D., 2010, Religion and Terrorism: Christian Fundamentalism and Extremism, None, Journal article, Academic, Mixed, Terrorism and Political Violence
• Rendkova, P., 2018, Understanding of Extremist Expressions at the Level of Higher Education in Slovakia, Slovakia, Journal article, Academic, Mixed, SGEM Scientific
• Redgrave, H., Stott, J. and Tipple, C., 2020, Countering extremism: Time to reboot?, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Crest
• Richards, A., 2011, The problem with 'radicalization': the remit of 'Prevent' and the need to refocus on terrorism in the UK, UK, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Oxford University Press
• Rowley, M., 2018, Extremism and Terrorism: The need for a whole society response, UK, Report, Practitioner, Theoretical, Policy Exchange Lecture
• Saija, B., Gearon, L., Kuusisto, A. and Koirikivi, P., 2021, Threshold of Adversity: Resilience and the Prevention of Extremism Through Education, Multi-country (Nordic countries), Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Nordic Studies in Education
• Scerri, D., 2022, Secondary school teachers' and 'Prevent' practitioners' conceptualisations of radicalisation : the impact on teachers' professionalism, UK, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Royal Holloway, University of London
• Schmid, A. P., 2013, Radicalisation, De-Radicalisation, Counter-Radicalisation: A Conceptual Discussion and Literature Review, Multi-country, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, International Centre for Counter-Terrorism
• Schmid, A. P., 2014, Violent and Non-Violent Extremism: Two Sides of the Same Coin?, Multi-country, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, International Centre for Counter-Terrorism
• Sotlar, A., 2004, Some Problems with Definition and Perception of Extremism within Society, Slovenia, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Policing in Central and Eastern Europe: Dilemmas of Contemporary Criminal Justice
• Southers, E., 2013, Chapter 1 - Defining Homegrown Violent Extremism, USA, Book, Academic, Theoretical, Taylor & Francis
• Striegher, J., 2015, Violent-extremism: An examination of a definitional dilemma, Multi-country, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Edith Cowan University
• Toft, M. D., 2016, Networks fighting networks: Understanding and combatting extremism and radicalisation on a smaller scale, UK, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Juncture
• Torregrosa, J., Bello-Orgaz, G., Martinez-Camara, E., Del Ser, J. and Camacho, D., 2021, A survey on extremism analysis using natural language processing, None, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing
• Wael, H., 2017, A Policy-Oriented Framework for Understanding Violent Extremism, None, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, New England Journal of Public Policy
• Walker, R. F., 2019, The emergence of 'extremism' and 'radicalisation': an investigation into the discursive conditions that have enabled UK counter-terrorism strategy to focus on 'radicalisation' and 'extremism', and a theorisation of the impact of this focus, UK, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, University of London
• Wibisono, S., 2019, A Multidimensional Analysis of Religious Extremism, Australia, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Frontiers in Psychology
• Wilkinson, B. and van Rij, A., 2019, An analysis of the Commission for Countering Extremism's call for evidence: report 1 - public understanding of extremism, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Commission for Countering Extremism
• Wilkinson, B., van Rij, A. and Hewlett, K., 2019, An analysis of the Commission for Countering Extremism's call for evidence: report 2 - tactics and harms, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Commission for Countering Extremism
• Winter, C., Heath-Kelly, C. and Mills, C., 2022, A moral education? British Values, colour-blindness, and preventing terrorism, UK, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Critical Social Policy
• Zedner, L., 2021, Countering terrorism or criminalizing curiosity? The troubled history of UK responses to right-wing and other extremism, UK, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Common Law World Review

Research question 2: The prevalence of extremism

• Advisory Group on Tackling Sectarianism in Scotland, 2015, Final Report of The Advisory Group on Tackling Sectarianism in Scotland, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Scottish Government
• Action on Sectarianism, 2017, Sectarianism on Social Media, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Action on Sectarianism
• Bailey, D. J., 2014, Contending the crisis: What role for extra-parliamentary British politics?, UK, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, British Politics
• Bailey, D. J., 2020, How Protest Is Shaking The UK And Why It's Likely To Continue, UK, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, The Conversation
• Barrett. R., 2017, Beyond the caliphate: foreign fighters and the threat of returnees, Multi-country (global), Report, Practitioner, Empirical, The Soufan Centre
• Bartlett, J. and Miller, C., 2012, Preventing Violent Extremism: Measurement Paradoxes and Pitfalls, Canada, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Canadian Issues
• Bellis, M. A. and Hardcastle, K., 2019, Preventing violent extremism in the UK: Public health solutions, UK, Report, Practitioner, Mixed, Public Health Wales
• BMG Research, 2017, BMG Poll, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, BMG
• British Social Attitudes, 2018, BSA 2018, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, NatCen
• Commission for Countering Extremism, 2019, Challenging Hateful Extremism, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Commission for Countering Extremism
• Community Security Trust, 2019, Anti-Semitic Incidents Report January-June 2019, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Community Security Trust
• Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service, 2022, Hate Crime in Scotland 2021-22, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service
• Crown Prosecution Service, 2019, Hate Crime Annual Reports, 2011-2018, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Crown Prosecution Service
• Europol, 2018, European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report, Multi-country (Europe), Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Europol
• European Commission, 2019, Special Eurobarometer 493 – Report, Multi-country (Europe), Report, Practitioner, Empirical, European Commission
• European Parliament, 2018, The return of foreign fighters to EU soil, Multi-country (Europe), Report, Practitioner, Empirical, European Parliament
• Global Terrorism Database, 2022, Global Terrorism Database, Multi-country (global), Database, Practitioner, Empirical, University of Maryland
• Hamilton-Smith, N., Malloch, M., Ashe, S. and Rutherford, A, 2015, Community Impact of Public Processions, UK, Report, Academic, Empirical, Scottish Government
• Home Office, 2018b, Operation of police powers under the Terrorism Act 2000 and subsequent legislation: Arrests, outcome and stop and search, Great Britain. Quarterly update to September 2018, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Home Office
• Home Office, 2018c, Individuals referred to and supported by the Prevent Programme, April 2017 to March 2018, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Home Office
• Home Office, 2019a, Hate crime, England and Wales, 2018 to 2019 - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Home Office
• Home Office, 2019b, Individuals referred to and supported through the Prevent Programme, April 2018 to March 2019, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Home Office
• Home Office, 2020a, Operation of police powers under the Terrorism Act 2000: financial year ending June 2020: annual data tables, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Home Office
• Home Office, 2020b, Individuals referred to and supported through the Prevent Programme, April 2019 to March 2020, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Home Office
• Home Office, 2020c, Hate Crime, England and Wales, 2019/20, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Home Office
• Home Office, 2021c, Individuals referred to and supported through the Prevent Programme, April 2020 to March 2021, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Home Office
• Home Office, 2023, Individuals referred to and supported through the Prevent Programme, April 2021 to March 2022, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Home Office
• Lakhani, S. and James. N., 2021, "Prevent duty": empirical reflections on the challenges of addressing far-right extremism within secondary schools and colleges in the UK, UK, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Critical Studies on Terrorism
• McKinney, S., Francis, L. K. and McKenna, U., 2019, Assessing sectarian attitudes among Catholic adolescents in Scotland, UK, Report, Academic, Empirical, Journal of Beliefs and Values
• Mills, C. E., Freilich, J. D. and Chermak, S. M., 2015, Extreme Hatred: Revisiting the Hate Crime and Terrorism Relationship to Determine Whether They Are 'Close Cousins' or 'Distant Relatives', UK, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Crime & Delinquency
• Mulhall, J., 2019, Modernising and Mainstreaming: The Contemporary British Far Right, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Commission for Countering Extremism
• Murray, A., Johnson-Mueller, K. and Lawrence, S., 2015, Evidence-Based Policing of U.K. Muslim Communities: Linking Confidence in the Police With Area Vulnerability to Violent Extremism, UK, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, International Criminal Justice Review
• NatCen, 2019, British Social Attitudes: The 36th Report - Relationships and gender identity, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, NatCen
• Institute of Economics and Peace, 2018, Global Terrorism Index 2018: Measuring the impact of terrorism, Australia, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Institute for Economics and Peace
• Hinchcliffe, S., Marcinkiewicz, A., Curtice, J. and Ormston, R., 2015, Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 2014: Public Attitudes to Sectarianism in Scotland, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Scottish Government
• Ipsos MORI, 2017, Ipsos Mori/Economist Issues Index, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Ipsos MORI
• Police Foundation, 2020, Public Safety and Security in the 21st Century, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Police Foundation
• Police Scotland, 2018, Prevent Referral Data, Scotland, April 2017 to March 2018, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Police Scotland
• Police Scotland, 2019, Prevent Referral Data, Scotland, April 2018 to March 2019, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Police Scotland
• Police Scotland, 2020, Prevent Referral Data, Scotland, April 2019 to March 2020, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Police Scotland
• Police Scotland, 2021, Prevent Referral Data, Scotland, April 2020 to March 2021, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Police Scotland
• Police Scotland, 2023, Prevent Referral Data, Scotland, April 2021 to March 2022, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Police Scotland
• Rosie, M., 2016, Independent Report on Marches, Parades and Static Demonstrations in Scotland, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Scottish Government
• Schuurman, B., 2018, Research on Terrorism, 2007–2016: A Review of Data, Methods, and Authorship, Multi-country, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Terrorism and Political Violence
• Scottish Government, 2021a, A Study into the Characteristics of Police Recorded Hate Crime in Scotland, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Scottish Government
• Scottish Government, 2021b, Scottish Crime and Justice Survey 2019/20: main findings, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Scottish Government
• Scottish Government, 2016, Community Experiences of Sectarianism, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Scottish Government
• Scottish Government, 2015, An Examination of the Evidence on Sectarianism in Scotland: 2015 Update, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Scottish Government
• Scottish Government, 2013, An Examination of the Evidence on Sectarianism in Scotland, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Scottish Government
• Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, 2012, Analysis of Factors Related to Hate Crime and Terrorism, Final Report to the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, USA, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, University of Maryland
• Tell Mama, 2019, MAMA Annual Report 2018: Normalising Hatred, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Tell MAMA
• Thornton, A. and Bouhana, N., 2017, Preventing radicalisation in the UK: expanding the knowledge-base on the Channel programme, UK, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice
• YouGov, 2018, MOPAC survey results, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, MOPAC
• YouGov, 2017, Politics and current affairs, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, YouGov
• YouGov, 2020, Poll carried out on behalf of Crest Advisory, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, YouGov
• YouGov, 2022, Poll - Has the threat of terrorism increased in the last 5 years?, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, YouGov

Research question 3: The nature of extremism

• Alaimo, M., 2020, Exploring the Typologies of Terrorism in the United States: Using Cluster Analysis to Group Terrorists Based on Their Individual Characteristics , USA, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, International Journal of Peace Studies
• Ballsun-Stanton, B. et al., 2021, Online Right-Wing Extremism: New South Wales, Australia, Australia, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Proceedings
• Bonino, S., 2016, The Jihadi Threat to Scotland: Caledonian Exceptionalism and its Limits, UK, Report, Academic, Theoretical, CTC Sentinel
• Choudhury, T. and Fenwick, H., 2011, The impact of counter-terrorism measures on Muslim communities, UK, Report, Academic, Empirical, International Review of Law, Computers & Technology
• Collins, J., 2021, A New Wave of Terrorism? A Comparative Analysis of the Rise of Far-Right Terrorism, Multi-country (Germany, Scandinavia, UK, USA), Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Perspectives on Terrorism
• Crosby, A. , 2021, Policing Right-Wing Extremism in Canada: Threat Frames, Ideological Motivation, and Societal Implications, Canada, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Surveillance & Society
• Doering, S., Davies, G. and Corrado, R., 2020, Reconceptualizing Ideology and Extremism: Toward an Empirically-Based Typology, USA, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Conflict & Terrorism
• Kamenowski, M. et al., 2021, Religion as an influencing factor of right-wing, left-wing and Islamist extremism. Findings of a Swiss youth study, Switzerland , Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, PLOS One
• Knight, S., Woodward, K. and Lancaster, G., 2017, Violent Versus Non-Violent Actors: An Empirical Study of Different Types of Extremism, UK, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Journal of Threat Assessment and Management
• Homes, A., McLean, C. and Murray, L., 2010, Muslim Integration in Scotland, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, British Council Scotland
• Hope Not Hate, 2022, State of Hate 2022, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Hope Not Hate
• Hope Not Hate, 2021, State of Hate 2021, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Hope Not Hate
• Hope Not Hate, 2020, State of Hate 2020, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, Hope Not Hate
• Hussain, A. M. and Miller, W. L., 2006, Multicultural Nationalism: Islamophobia, Anglophobia and Devolution, UK, Book, Academic, Mixed, Oxford University Press
• Macklin, G., 2022, The Extreme Right, Climate Change and Terrorism, Multi-country, Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Terrorism and Political Violence
• Magarino, S. and Jimenez-Ramos, M., 2022, An Attempt at a Theoretical Explanation of Violent Islamist Radicalization in Spain, Spain, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Religions
• Morris, C. J., 2021, Can partnership approaches developed to prevent Islamic terrorism be replicated for the extreme right? Comparing the Muslim Brotherhood and Generation Identity as 'firewalls' against violent extremism , UK, Journal article, Academic, Theoretical, Journal for De-radicalization
• Michalski, J., 2019, Terrorism and lethal moralism in the United States and United Kingdom, 1970–2017, Multi-country (UK and USA), Journal article, Academic, Empirical, The British Journal of Sociology
• Taylor, M., Holbrok. D. and Curie, P. M., 2013, Extreme Right Wing Political Violence and Terrorism, Multi-country, Book, Academic, Empirical, Bloomsbury
• Tin, D., Barten, D. G., Goniewicz, K., Burkle, F. M. and Ciottone, G. R., 2022, An Epidemiological Analysis of Terrorism-Related Attacks in Eastern Europe from 1970 to 2019, Multi-country (Eastern Europe) , Journal article, Academic, Empirical, Prehospital and Disaster Medicine
• YouGov, 2021, Threat of Extremism, UK, Report, Practitioner, Empirical, YouGov