Wild seaweed harvesting: strategic environmental assessment - environmental report
Investigates the sustainability and potential environmental impacts of wild seaweed and seagrass harvesting, maerl extraction and removal of beach-cast seaweed.
18. Appendix E: Evidence Base
Table E1: Evidence used to inform risk matrix (Table 12 in the main report)
Biotope |
Ecological Interactions |
Food Web Dynamics |
Production |
Coastal Protection |
Carbon Cycling |
|
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General |
ABPmer, 2013. Tools for Appropriate Assessment of Fishing and Aquaculture Activities in Marine and Coastal Natura 2000 Sites. Reports II, III and V. R. 2070. Report for Marine Institute. |
Foster, M.S. and Barilotti, D.C., 1990. An approach to determining the ecological effects of seaweed harvesting: a summary. In Thirteenth International Seaweed Symposium (pp. 15-16). Springer Netherlands. |
Lowe, R.J., Koseff, J.R., Monismith, S.G. 2005. Oscillatory flow through submerged canopies: 1. Velocity structure. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans 110: 1- 17. |
Nellemann et al., 2009. Blue Carbon. A Rapid Response Assessment, United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal. |
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Airoldi, L., and Beck, M. W. 2007. Loss, status and trends for coastal marine habitats of Europe. Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual Review, 45: 345-405. |
Jones, L.A., Hiscock, K. and Connor, D.W., (2000). Marine habitat reviews. A summary of ecological requirements and sensitivity characteristics for the conservation and management of marine SACs. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. |
UK Climate Projections, 2009. UKCP09 scientific reports. Available at: http://ukclimateprojections.metoffice.gov.uk/ [accessed 09/02/2016] |
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Boney, A.D., 1965. Aspects of the biology of the seaweeds of economic imprtance. Advances in Marine Biology, 3, 105^253. |
Wells, E., Wilkinson, M., Wood, P., Scanlan, C., and Best, M. 2007. Water Framework Directive development of classification tools for ecological assessment: Macroalgae Species Richness. Water Framework Directive - United Kingdom Technical Advisory Group ( WFD- UKTAG) [Online] Available at: http://www.wfduk.org/sites/default/files/Media/Characterisation%20of%20the%20water%20environment/Biological%20Method%20Statements/Intertidal%20Rocky%20Shore%20Macroalgae%20Species%20Richness%20Technical%20Report.pdf [accessed 12/02/16] |
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Centre for Conservation Ecology and Environmental Science ( CCEES) and ABPmer, 2010. Description of the ecosystem services provided by broad-scale habitats and features of conservation importance that are likely to be protected by Marine Protected Areas in the Marine Conservation Zone Project area. Final Report. |
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Connor, D.W., Allen, J.H., Golding, N., Howell, K.L., Lieberknecht, L.M., Northen, K.O. and Reker, J.B. 2004. The Marine Habitat Classification for Britain and Ireland, Version 04.05 JNCC. |
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Foster, M.S. and Barilotti, D.C., 1990. An approach to determining the ecological effects of seaweed harvesting: a summary. In Thirteenth International Seaweed Symposium (pp. 15-16). Springer Netherlands. |
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Jones, L.A., Hiscock, K. and Connor, D.W., (2000). Marine habitat reviews. A summary of ecological requirements and sensitivity characteristics for the conservation and management of marine SACs. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. |
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Lavery, P., Bootle, S. & Vanderklift, M. 1999. Ecological effects of macroalgal harvesting on beaches in the Peel-Harvey Estuary, Western Australia. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 49: 295-309. |
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Lieberknecht, L.M., Vincent, M.A., and Connor, D.W. 2004. The Irish Sea pilot: Report on the identification of nationally important marine features in the Irish Sea. JNCC Report 347. |
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Norton, T.A., and Powell H.T., 1979. Seaweeds and rocky shores of the Outer Hebrides. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 77B, 141-153. |
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PlantLink England and PlantLink Cymru undated. Enjoying foraging sustainably. Responsible collection principles. |
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Unsworth, R.K.F and Cullen-Unsworth, L.C. 2015. Pen Llŷn a'r Sarnau Special Area of Conservation ( SAC) Porthdinllaen Seagrass Project: A review of current knowledge |
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Wilkinson, M. and Wood, P., 2003. Type-specific reference conditions for macroalgae and angiosperms in Scottish transitional and coastal waters. Final report - 2003. SEPA project reference 230/4136 157pp. |
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Wracks |
Environment and Resource Technology Ltd. (ERT) Undated. Littoral seaweed resource assessment and management in the Western Isles. Condensed from the report produced by Environment and Resource Technology Ltd for the Minch Project. [Online] Available at: http://www.cne-siar.gov.uk/minch/seaweed/seaweed.htm#TopOfPage [Accessed 24/5/16] |
Boaden, P.J. and Dring, M.J. 1980. A quantitative evaluation of the effects of Ascophyllum harvesting on the littoral ecosystem. Helgoländer Meeresuntersuchungen 33: 700-710. |
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Holt, T.J., Hartnoll, R.G. and Hawkins, S.J. 1997. The sensitivity and vulnerability to man-induced change of selected communities: intertidal brown algal shrubs, Zostera beds and Sabellaria spinulosa reefs. English Nature, Peterborough. |
Jackson. A., 2008. Fucus serratus Toothed wrack. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1326 [accessed on 23/02/2016] |
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Fernández, Á., Arenas, F., Trilla, A., Rodríguez, S., Rueda, L. & Martínez, B., 2015. Additive effects of emersion stressors on the ecophysiological performance of two intertidal seaweeds. Marine Ecology Progress Series,536: 135-147. |
Jenkins, S.R., Norton, T.A. and Hawkins, S.J. 2004. Long term effects of Ascophyllum nodosum canopy removal on mid shore community structure. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 84: 327-329. |
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Guiry, M.,D., 1997. Went Memorial Lecture 1996. Research and development of a sustainable Irish seaweed industry. Occasional Papers in Irish Science and Technology Royal Dublin Society No 14:1-11. |
Kelly, L., Collier, L., Costello, M. J., Diver, M., McGarvey, S., Kraan, S., Morrissey, J. & Guiry, M. D. 2001. Impact Assessment of Hand and Mechanical Harvesting of Ascophyllum nodosum on Regeneration and Biodiversity. Marine Resource Series, Marine Institute |
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Hill, J.M. and White, N. 2008. Ascophyllum nodosum. Knotted wrack. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. [cited 11/02/2016]. Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1336 |
McLaughlin, E., Kelly, J., Birkett, D., Maggs, C. and Dring, M. 2006. Assessment of the Effects of Commercial Seaweed Harvesting on Intertidal and Subtidal Ecology in Northern Ireland. Environment and Heritage Service Research and Development Series. No. 06/26. |
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Jackson. A., 2008. Fucus serratus Toothed wrack. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1326 [accessed on 23/02/2016] |
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Kelly, L., Collier, L., Costello, M. J., Diver, M., McGarvey, S., Kraan, S., Morrissey, J. & Guiry, M. D. 2001. Impact Assessment of Hand and Mechanical Harvesting of Ascophyllum nodosum on Regeneration and Biodiversity. Marine Resource Series, Marine Institute |
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Knight, M. and Parke, M., 1950. A biological study of Fucus vesiculosus L. and Fucus serratus L. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 29, 439-514. |
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Mclachlan, J. and Bidwell, R. G. 1978. Photosynthesis of eggs, sperm, zygotes and embryos of Fucus serratus. Can. J. Bot., 56: 371-373. |
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McLaughlin, E., Kelly, J., Birkett, D., Maggs, C. and Dring, M. 2006. Assessment of the Effects of Commercial Seaweed Harvesting on Intertidal and Subtidal Ecology in Northern Ireland. Environment and Heritage Service Research and Development Series. No. 06/26. |
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Tyler, P., 1994. Ascophyllum harvesting in the Outer Hebrides. Unpublished MSc Thesis, Heriot-Watt University. |
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White, N. 2008a. Pelvetia canaliculata Channelled wrack. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. . [cited 11/02/16] Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1342 |
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White, N. 2008b. Fucus spiralis Spiral wrack. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. [cited 11/02/16] Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1337 |
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White, N. 2008c. Fucus vesiculosus Bladder wrack. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. [cited 11/02/16] Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1330 |
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Kelps |
Amsler, C. D. and Neushul, M. 1991. Photosynthetic physiology and chemical composition of spores of the Kelps Macrocystis pyrifera, Nereocystis luetkeana, Laminaria farlowii and Pterogophora californica. J. Phycol. 27: 26-34. |
Birkett, D.A., Maggs, C.A., Dring, M.J., Boaden, P.J.S. and Seed, R. 1998. Infralittoral Reef Biotopes with Kelp Species (volume VII). An overview of dynamic and sensitivity characteristics for conservation management of marine SACs. Scottish Association of Marine Science ( UK Marine SACs Project). 174p. |
Bernstein, B.B., Williams B.E. & Mann, K.H. 1981. The role of behavioural responses to predators in modifying sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) destructive grazing and seasonal foraging patterns. Marine Biology, 63: 39-49. |
Dayton P. K. 1985. Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 16: 215-245. |
Angus, S. 2012. Ecosystem services provided by tangle Laminaria hyperborea on the west coast of the Uists, Outer Hebrides. CoastAdapt. Inverness: Scottish Natural Heritage. |
Bellamy, D. J., John, D. M. and Whittick, A. 1968. The "kelp forest ecosystem" as a "phytometer" in the study of pollution of the inshore environment. Underwater Association Report 79-82. |
Bekkby, T. and Moy, F.E. 2011. Developing spatial models of sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima) potential distribution under natural conditions and areas of its disappearance in Skagerrak. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 95: 477-483. |
Blight, A. J. & Thompson, R. C. 2008. Epibiont species richness varies between holdfasts of a northern and a southerly distributed kelp species. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 88: 469-475. |
Christie, H., S. Fredriksen, and E. Rinde. 1998. Regrowth of kelp and colonization of epiphyte and fauna community after kelp trawling at the coast of Norway. Hydrobiologia 375-376:49-58. |
Duggins, D.O., Simenstad, C.A. and Estes, J.A. 1989. Magnification of secondary production by kelp detritus in coastal marine ecosystems. Science, 245, 170-173. |
Angus, S. and Rennie, A., 2014. An Ataireachd Aird: The storm of January 2005 in the Uists, Scotland. Ocean & Coastal Management, 94, pp.22-29. |
Burrows, M.T., Kamenos, N.A., Hughes, D.J., Stahl, H., Howe, J.A. and Tett, P., 2014. Assessment of carbon budgets and potential blue carbon stores in Scotland's coastal and marine environment. Review, 17, 101-161. |
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CDFG E.I.R. 2001. Calif.Dept.of Fish and Game.Final Environmental Document -Giant and Bull Kelp Commercial and Sport Fishing Regulations -Section 30 and 165,Title 14,California Code of Regulations (Eds. Larson and Mc Peak). |
Bodkin, J. L. 1988. Effects of kelp forest removal on associated fish assemblages in central California. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 117:227- 238. |
Dugan, J.E., Hubbard, D.M., McCrary, M.D., & Pierson, M.O. 2003. The response of macrofauna communities and shorebirds to macrophyte wrack subsidies on exposed sandy beaches of southern California. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 58:25-40 |
Johnston, C.S., Jones, R.G., and Hunt, R.D. 1977. A seasonal carbon budget for Laminarian population in a Scottish sea-loch. Helgolander wiss Meeresrunters. 30, 527 -545 |
Bellamy, D. J., John, D. M. and Whittick, A. 1968. The "kelp forest ecosystem" as a "phytometer" in the study of pollution of the inshore environment. Underwater Association Report 79-82. |
Connell, S. D. and B. D. Russell. 2010. The direct effects of increasing CO 2 and temperature on non-calcifying organisms: increasing the potential for phase shifts in kelp forests. Proc. Biol. Sci. 277:1409-1415. |
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Chapman, A. R. O. 1984. Reproduction, recruitment and mortality in two species of Laminaria in South West of Nova Scotia. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology & Ecology, 78: 99-109. |
Bodvin, T., Steen, H. and Moy, F., 2014b. Effekter av tarehøsting på fisk og skalldyr i Vikna, Nord-Trøndelag 2013. |
Jones, N.S. and Kain, J.M., 1967. Subtidal algal recolonisation following removal of Echinus.Helgolander Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen, 15, 460-466. |
Jones, N.S. and Kain, J.M., 1967. Subtidal algal recolonisation following removal of Echinus.Helgolander Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen, 15, 460-466. |
Bouma, T.J., De Vries, M.B., Low, E., Peralta, G., Tánczos, I.C., van de Koppel, J. and Herman, P.M.J., 2005. Trade-offs related to ecosystem engineering: a case study on stiffness of emerging macrophytes. Ecology, 86(8), pp.2187-2199. |
Duggins, D.O., Simenstad, C.A. and Estes, J.A. 1989. Magnification of secondary production by kelp detritus in coastal marine ecosystems. Science, 245, 170-173. |
|
Christie, H., S. Fredriksen, and E. Rinde. 1998. Regrowth of kelp and colonization of epiphyte and fauna community after kelp trawling at the coast of Norway. Hydrobiologia 375-376:49-58. |
Bodvin, T., Steen, H., Hansen, H.Ø., Sannæs, H., Bosgraaf, S. and Moy, F., 2014a. Effekter av tarehøsting på fisk og skalldyr, Flatanger 2014. |
Mann, K. H. 1977. Destruction of kelp-beds by sea urchins: a cyclical phenomenon or irreversible degradation? Helgoland wiss Meeresunters 30:455-467. |
Kirkman, H., and Kendrick, G.A., 1997. Ecological significant and commercial harvesting of drifting and beach-cast macro-algae and seagrasses in Australia: a review. Journal of Applied Phycology. 9: 311 - 326 |
Dugan, J.E., Hubbard, D.M., 2010. Loss of coastal strand habitat in southern California: the role of beach grooming. Estuaries and Coasts 33 (1), 67-77. |
Hill, R., Bellgrove, A., Macreadie, P.I., Petrou, K., Beardall, J., Steven, A. and Ralph, P.J., 2015. Can macroalgae contribute to blue carbon? An Australian perspective. Limnology and Oceanography, 60(5), pp.1689-1706. |
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Dayton P. K. 1985. Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 16: 215-245. |
Burrows, M.T., Smales, D., O'Connor, N., Van Rein, H and Moore, P. 2014. Marine Strategy Framework Directive Indicators for UK Kelp Habitats Part 1: Developing proposals for potential indicators. JNCC Report No. 525. SAMS/ MBA/ QUB/ UAber for JNCC, JNCC Peterborough. |
Norderhaug, K. M., Fredriksen, S. & Nygaard, K. 2003. Trophic importance of Laminaria hyperborea to kelp forest consumers and the importance of bacterial degradation to food quality. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 255:135-144 |
Krumhansl, K.A. and Scheibling, R.E., 2012. Production and fate of kelp detritus. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 467, pp.281-302. |
Eckman, J. E., Duggins, D. O., and Sewell, A. T. 1989. Ecology of under storey kelp environments. I. Effects of kelps on flow and particle transport near the bottom. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 129:173-187. |
Koch, M., G. Bowes, C. Ross, and X.-H. Zhang. 2013. Climate change and ocean acidification effects on seagrasses and marine macroalgae. Glob. Change Biol. 19:103-132. |
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Edwards, A. 1980. Ecological studies of the kelp, Laminaria hyperborea, and its associated fauna in South-West Ireland. Ophelia, 19: 47-60. |
Christie, H., Jorgensen, N. M., Norderhaug, K. M. & Waage-Nielsen, E. 2003. Species distribution and habitat exploitation of fauna associated with kelp ( Laminaria hyperborea) along the Norwegian coast. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 83: 687-699. |
Norderhaug, K.M. and Christie, H.C., 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research, 5(6), pp.515-528. |
Mann, K. H. 1972. Ecological energetics of the seaweed zone in a marine bay on the Atlantic coast of Canada: I. Zonation and biomass of seaweeds. Mar. Biol. 12:1-10. |
Gaylord, B., Rosman, J.H., Reed, D.C., Koseff, J.R., Fram, J., MacIntyre, S., Arkema, K., McDonald, C., Brzezinski, M.A., Largier, J.L. and Monismith, S.G., 2007. Spatial patterns of flow and their modification within and around a giant kelp forest. Limnology and Oceanography, 52(5), pp.1838-1852. |
Krumhansl, K.A. and Scheibling, R.E., 2012. Production and fate of kelp detritus. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 467, pp.281-302. |
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Frederiksen, S., Sjoetun, K., Lein, T. E. & Rueness, J. 1995. Spore dispersal in Laminaria hyperborea (Phaeophyceae). Sarsia, 80:47-54. |
Dugan, J.E., Hubbard, D.M., McCrary, M.D., & Pierson, M.O. 2003. The response of macrofauna communities and shorebirds to macrophyte wrack subsidies on exposed sandy beaches of southern California. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 58:25-40 |
Orr, K.K. 2013. Predicting the ecosystem effects of harvesting beach-cast kelp for biofuel. PhD thesis. University of Aberdeen. |
Mann, K. H. 1982. Ecology of coastal waters: a systems approach: University of California Pr. |
Løvås, S.M. and Tørum, A., 2001. Effect of the kelp Laminaria hyperborea upon sand dune erosion and water particle velocities. Coastal Engineering, 44(1), pp.37-63. |
Laffoley, D. d. A. and Grimsditch, G. 2009. The management of natural coastal carbon sinks.Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. |
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Gunnarson, K., 1991. Populations de Laminaria hyperborea et Laminaria digitata (Pheophycees) dans la Baie de Breidifjrdur, Islande. Rit Fiskideildar, 12: 1-148. |
Edwards, A. 1980. Ecological studies of the kelp, Laminaria hyperborea, and its associated fauna in South-West Ireland. Ophelia, 19: 47-60. |
Sjøtun, K., Christie, H. and Helge Fosså, J., 2006. The combined effect of canopy shading and sea urchin grazing on recruitment in kelp forest ( Laminaria hyperborea). Marine Biology Research, 2(01), pp.24-32. |
Nybakken, J.W. 2001. Marine Biology: An Ecological Approach. Fifth Edition. Benjamin Cummings. 516pp |
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Hawkins, S. J. & Harkin, E. 1985: Primary canopy removal experiments in algal dominated communities low on the shore and in the shallows subtidal of the Isle of Man. Botanica Marina, XXVIII: 223-230. |
Gilburn, A.S. 2012. Mechanical grooming and beach award status are associated with low strandline biodiversity in Scotland. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 107:81-88 |
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Hawkins, S. J. & Harkin, E. 1985: Primary canopy removal experiments in algal dominated communities low on the shore and in the shallows subtidal of the Isle of Man. Botanica Marina, XXVIII: 223-230. |
Vanderklift, M. A. and Wernberg, T. 2008. Detached kelps from distant sources are a food subsidy for sea urchins. Oecologia, 157: 327-335. |
Smale, D.A., Burrows, M.T., Moore, P., O'Connor, N. & Hawkins, S.J., 2013. Threats and knowledge gaps for ecosystem services provided by kelp forests: a northeast Atlantic perspective. Ecology and evolution, 3 (11), 4016-4038. |
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Smale, D.A., Burrows, M.T., Evans, A.J., King, N., Sayer, M.D.J., Yunnie, L.E. and Moore, P.J., 2016. Linking environmental variables with regional-scale variability in ecological structure and standing stock of carbon within UK kelp forests. Marine Ecology Progress Series 542: 79-95 |
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Smale, D.A., Burrows, M.T., Moore, P., O'Connor, N. & Hawkins, S.J., 2013. Threats and knowledge gaps for ecosystem services provided by kelp forests: a northeast Atlantic perspective. Ecology and evolution, 3 (11), 4016-4038. |
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Vanderklift, M. A. and Wernberg, T. 2008. Detached kelps from distant sources are a food subsidy for sea urchins. Oecologia, 157: 327-335. |
Vasquez, J. 2008. Production, use and fate of Chilean brown seaweeds: re-sources for a sustainable fishery. Journal of Applied Phycology. 20:457-467. |
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Mann, K. H. 1973. Seaweeds: Their productivity and strategy for growth. Science. 182: 975 - 983 |
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